心理学与生活-第130节

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23。　

Kom　J。　H。　（1984）。　Coverage　of　research　ethics　in　introductory　and　social　psychology　tests。　Teaching　of　
Psychology；　11；　146…149。　

Steininger；　M。；　Newell；　J。　D。；　&　Garcia；　L。　（1984）。　Ethical　issues　in　psychology。　Homewood；　IL：　Dorsey　Press。　

Zimbardo；　P。　G。　（1973）。　On　the　ethics　of　intervention　in　human　psychological　research：　With　special　
reference　to　the　Stanford　prison　experiment。　Cognition；　2；　243…256。　

One　survey　of　IRB　actions　presents　the　following　data；　which　the　class　might　find　useful。　The　data　are　
for　all　types　of　institutions—universities；　medical　school；　hospitals　and　others　（2389　were　surveyed）。　

IRB　Actions　Percent　
Board　modified　33　
Modified　after　an　informal　discussion　with　IRB　members　7　
More　information　requested　10　
No　change　44　
No　data　available　6　
Total：　100　

Here　is　a　description　of　the　infamous　U。S。　Public　Health　Service　study　of　syphilis；　in　which　the　control　
group　received　a　placebo—and　most　died。　It　supports　arguments　for　strong　IRBs。　

The　study　was　started　in　1932　by　the　service’s　venereal　disease　section。　It　involved　625　black　men；　mostly　
poor　and　uneducated；　from　the　county　surrounding　Tuskegee；　Alabama；　which　then　had　the　highest　
syphilis　rate　in　the　nation。　Two　hundred　of　the　men　did　not　have　syphilis　and　served　as　a　control　group　for　
parison　purposes；　425　had　latent　（and　therefore　nonmunicable）　syphilis　and　received　little　if　any　
treatment　for　it。　As　an　incentive　to　participate　in　the　study；　they　were　offered　free　treatment　for　any　other　

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illnesses；　free　hot　lunches；　and　free　burial　after　autopsies　were　performed。　

At　the　time　the　test　began；　treatment　for　syphilis　was　uncertain　at　best　and　involved　a　lifelong　series　of　risky　
injections　of　such　toxic　substances　as　bismuth；　arsenic；　and　mercury。　However；　in　the　years　following　
World　War　II；　the　PHS’s　test　became　a　matter　of　medical　morality。　Penicillin　had　been　found　almost　totally　
effective　against　syphilis；　and　by　war’s　end　it　had　bee　generally　available。　Nevertheless；　the　PHS　did　
not　use　the　drug　on　those　participating　in　the　study　unless　the　patient　asked　for　it。　

Recent　reviews　of　125　cases　by　the　PHS’s　Center　for　Disease　Control　in　Atlanta　found　that　half　had　
syphilitic　heart　valve　damage。　Twenty…eight　had　died　of　cardiovascular　or　central　nervous　system　problems　
that　were　plications　of　syphilis。　

The　study’s　findings　on　the　effects　of　untreated　syphilis　have　been　reported　periodically　in　medical　journals　
for　years。　It　was　not　until　1972；　however；　that　an　Associated　Press　correspondent　noticed　and　reported　that　
the　lack　of　treatment　was　intentional。　Senator　William　Proxmire　of　Wisconsin；　a　member　of　the　
submittee　that　oversees　PHS’s　budget；　called　the　study　“a　moral　and　ethical　nightmare”　and　an　
investigation　soon　followed。　

The　probe　did　not　help　much；　for　the　damage　had　already　been　done。　The　officials　responsible　for　the　study　
have　long　since　retired。　Present　CDC　officials　agree　that　such　a　study　could　not　be　conducted　today。　
Unfortunately；　their　solicitude　is　small　consolation　for　the　74　of　the　original　425　syphilitics　still　surviving。　
The　agency　is　treating　them　for　whatever　other　diseases　or　physical　problems　they　might　have；　but　it　can　do　
little　for　their　syphilis。　The　average　age　of　the　survivors　is　74；　and　the　massive　penicillin　therapy　necessary　
to　arrest　their　long…ignored　affliction　could　do　more　harm　than　good。　

For　them；　the　PHS　reversal　has　e　too　late。　But　the　notoriety　of　this　study　has　done　much　to　raise　the　
consciousness　of　researchers　and　research　service　administrators　and　legislators。　

PROPOSAL　1　

Title：　Resolution　of　Social　Conflicts　

Department：。　Social　Anthropology　

Proposal：　Many　groups　face　social　conflicts　that；　without　adequate　means　of　resolution；　erupt　into　group　
hostility　and　destructive　behavior。　On　the　basis　of　previous　research　by　M。　Sherif；　we　believe　that　the　critical　
variable　in　the　conflict　resolution　process　is　the　availability　of　superordinate　goals；　that　is；　mon　goals　or　
objectives　that　can　be　fulfilled　only　via　cooperative　rather　than　petitive　strategies。　

Subjects　will　be　housed　in　an　environment　that　is　new　to　them　（a　summer　camp）　with　others　who　are　
strangers。　This　is　to　control　for　extraneous　influences　and　prior　group　formation。　The　subjects　will　be　
divided　into　two　groups；　each　of　which　will　be　housed　separately；　and　led　by　a　team　of　adult　supervisor…
observers。　There　will　be　four　phases　to　our　study：　（1）　development　of　strong　within…group　cohesion　and　
solidarity　in　each　of　the　two　camp　groups；　（2）　creation　of　the　opportunity　for　conflict　between　the　two　
groups；　（3）　introduction　of　a　mon　problem　（e。g。；　breakdown　in　water　supply　to　the　camp）　facing　both　
groups；　and　（4）　observation　of　strategies　of　resolution。　

The　duration　of　each　phase　will　be：　Phase　1…five　days；　Phase　2…three　days；　Phrase　3…one　day；　Phase　4…five　
days—a　total　of　two　weeks。　

Trained　observers　will　record　all　interactions　that　occur　during　meals；　sports；　recreation；　and　at　other　times。　

Subjects：　60　lower…socioeconomic　status　children　whose　parents　agree　to　send　them　to　this　experimental　
summer　camp　for　two　weeks。　There　will　be　no　fees　at　all　for　transportation；　food；　tuition；　etc。；　in　return　for　
the　use　of　the　children　as　subjects。　The　children　will　not　be　informed　of　the　experimental　nature　of　the　camp；　
but　parents　will　sign　an　informal　consent　form　（submitted　to　this　mittee　separately）。　All　parents　will　
receive　a　report　of　the　study　in　which　children’s　identity　will　be　confidential。　There　will　be　adequate　
medical　and　health　supervision　at　all　times　during　this　study。　

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Remarks：　It　is　expected　that　we　will　learn　some　important　principles　to　help　in　the　design　of　environments　to　
promote　cooperation　and　minimize　petition。　Such　“social　engineering”　may　remove　conflicts　not　only　
in　gangs　but　also　between　ethnic　and　racial　groups　and　be　of　value　even　at　the　political…international　level　
（witness　cooperation　among　oil…deprived　nations）。　

PROPOSAL　2　

Title：　Low…Pressure　Determinants　of　pliance　

Department：　Psychology　

Proposal：　Research　done　in　the　mid…1960s　by　Freedman　and　Fraser　demonstrated　that　pliance　with　a　
small　request　greatly　increased　the　probability　of　future　pliance　with　a　large　request；　even　when　the　
large　request　was　made　two　weeks　after　the　small　request。　The　large　request　made　in　this　research　required　
the　subjects　to　allow　their　home　property　to　be　used　in　specific　ways。　It　was　thus　a　request　for　acquiescence。　

Our　study　will　replicate　the　Freedman　and　Fraser　investigation；　except　that　the　large　request　will　call　on　
subjects　to　actively　carry　out　a　rather　time…consuming　task。　

Subjects：　The　subjects　will　be　householders　in　a　suburban　middle…class　munity。　They　will　be　contacted　
in　their　homes；　in　person；　and　treated　in　one　of　three　ways：　（a）　informed　about　a　new　effort　to　persuade　the　
city　council　to　enact　an　ordinance　prohibiting　research　and　development　of　antipersonnel　weapons　in　the　
city　limits　（FAMILIARIZATION　CONDITION）；　（b）　asked　to　sign　a　petition　to　the　city　council　advocating　
such　an　ordinance　（SMALL　REQUEST　CONDITION）；　（c）　agree　to　sign　a　petition　when　approached　to　do　so　
later　（AGREEMENT　CONDITION）—Half　the　subjects　in　each　of　these　three　conditions　will　later　be　
approached　and　asked　to　invite　their　neighbors　to　a　coffee　meeting　in　their　homes　to　generate　support　and　
raise　funds　for　this　effort。　The　other　half　will　be　approached　and　asked　to　hold　a　similar　meeting　to　generate　
support　and　raise　funds　for　an　effort　to　enact　new　pollution　control　ordinances。　

The　study　therefore　includes　a　control　group　that　is　merely　contacted；　a　group　that　agrees　to　a　small　request；　
and　a　group　that　actually　carries　out　the　small　request。　Subjects　from　all　three　groups　are　then　asked　to　carry　
out　major　requests　that　are　either　related　or　unrelated　to　their　previous　experience。　

Remarks：　Events　of　the　past　few　years　have　caused　great　concern　among　Americans　about　political　
manipulation　and　mercial　exploitation　of　the　public。　In　politics；　“dirty　tricks”　has　bee　a　household　
phrase。　Advertising　through　the　media　is　widely　believed　to　influence　consumer　preferences。　We　believe　
that　understanding　of　the　subtle　tactics　political　organizers　and　salespeople　attempt　to　use　can　enable　
private　individuals　to　behave　in　a　more　independent　fashion。　Our　interest　focuses　on　low…pressure　
techniques　precisely　because　many　people　are　sensitized　to　high…pressure　tactics　and　can　presumably　
defend　themselves　against　those　tactics　to　some　extent。　Low…pressure　tactics；　on　the　other　hand；　may　go　
unrecognized　by　the　target　population　and　thus　render　them　more　susceptible　to　insidious　influence　
attempts。　

PROPOSAL　3　

Title：　Obedience　in　Response　to　Authority　

Department：　Educational　Psychology　

Proposal：　This　study　will　replicate　and　extend　research　by　Milgram　and　by　Sheridan　and　King　on　the　
conditions　under　which　adults　will　administer　painful　or　potentially　lethal　punishment　to　a　victim　in　
obedience　to　the　instructions　of　an　authority　figure。　Male　and　female　subjects　will　be　asked　to　se