心理学与生活-第121节
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trial。 Write the subject’s score on the board。
4。 Then； ask for a volunteer of the opposite sex。 Have this student e to the front of the room； sit
down； relax； and tell you his or her preferred hand。 Then define the task： to stop the meter as soon
as possible when it is dropped after the signal “Drop” is given。 Hold the meter so that the point is
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two inches above the student’s fingers （instead of even with them）。 Give the subject two practice
trials and a verbal warning signal of “Ready。 ” Then give two test trials and record only the fastest
one。 Then announce that the “obvious” conclusion has been confirmed。
5。 At this point； the “losing sex” will protest； pointing out some of the biases you introduced。 List
them：
。 The first student was selected； while the other volunteered。
。 The first student had to use cognitive processes （since the task wasn’t explained before the
trial）； the second student used simple reaction time。
。 The first student started with the point at fingertip level； the second started with it two
inches above the fingertips （leads to a discussion of accuracy of measurement）。
。 The first student had no “ready” signal； the second did。
。 The first student was standing； the second was sitting。
。 The first student had no practice； the second had practice trials。
6。 Now pretend to run an unbiased test following the class suggestions。 Eliminating all of the
previous biases （by essentially following the procedure for the second subject）； you can still easily
bias the results：
。 By having a fixed foreperiod （warning signal to stimulus onset） for one subject versus a
widely variable one for the other。
。 By using different motivating instructions or feedback （“that wasn’t very good now； was
it？”）。
。 By giving one a motor set （to respond…“get ready to grab it”）； which is faster than a sensory
set （to observe…“watch for it to drop”）。
。 By letting one subject but not the other； see you “prepare” to release the stimulus。
7。 Using any of the above （or in bination）； your hypothesis will again be “proven”。 Have the
students list the biases in this test。 Repeat； using more subtle differences each time。
DISCUSSION
The discussion should lead to the notion of relevant versus irrelevant variables in an experimental
situation。 Relevant variables are those likely to affect the dependent measure （reaction time）； such as those
used to bias this experiment。 Irrelevant variables are those unlikely to affect the results； such as； in this case；
barometric pressure； hair color； socioeconomic level； etc。 This should lead to discussion of the need for
experimental control procedures in order to identify and control relevant variables so that both
experimental conditions are the same in every regard except the independent variable。 Then； any differences
in results can be attributed to the independent variable。
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Stanovich； K。E。 （1992）。 How to Think Straight About Psychology。 3rd Ed。 New York： Harper Collins。
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Place Thumb
He re
REACTION TIME
METER
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2
1
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SALIVATING FOR PAVLOV
OBJECTIVES
1。 To have students personally experience what it means to be conditioned to elicit a classical salivary
response。
2。 To perform a simple but effective demonstration of Pavlovian conditioning on the entire class。
3。 To collect conditioned response data on acquisition and extinction that will provide the impetus for
discussing applications and extensions of conditioning principles in everyday life。
OVERVIEW
Many students find the usual discussion of Pavlov’s discovery of the principles of conditioning
uninteresting and without any personal relevance。 Having them salivate–as did Pavlov’s experimental
dogs–may ring a bell for them！
1。 Do not begin by stating the principles of conditioning； but request that the students read Psychology
and Life； chapter 9 before this demonstration。
2。 Do assess the students’ knowledge of the meaning of US…UR； CS…CR； acquisition and extinction。
3。 Perform the following demonstration； which was developed by Dennis and Rosemary Cogan
（Texas Tech University） and described in detail in their article in Teaching of Psychology； 1984； Vol。
11； pp。 170…171。
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Although conditioning represents one of the most important discoveries in psychology； students fail to
appreciate its significance。 In part； this is due to the description in terms of dogs salivating to bells； hardly
of apparent personal relevance to students。 By making the students salivate to an arbitrary signal （CS） –the
name “Pavlov” –they will be in a better position to appreciate how virtually any neutral stimulus can e
to have the power to elicit powerful biological responses。
Following the demonstration； you should be sure that the class understands the significance of the research
on conditioning of drug responses–and lethal overdoses–as one “real…world” consequence。
PROCEDURE
Materials
。 One can of sweetened lemonade powder （such as Minute Maid）。
。 Small paper cups； one per student； of the kind used for ketchup and mustard in some cafeterias。
。 Pour enough of the lemonade powder in each cup so that a student can taste some on each of about
70 conditioning trials。 （Try it first yourself to determine the approximate amount。）
Method
1。 Tell students to moisten the tip of the index finger of their preferred hand and watch for the
instructor to signal them to “Dip。”
2。 At the visual cue of the instructor pointing down； students dip their moistened fingers in the
lemonade powder and put a small amount of it on their tongues。
3。 The CS is the spoken name “Pavlov” said between （0。5 and 1。5 seconds） prior to the “Dip” signal。
4。 These conditioning trials are spaced at intervals of 10 to 15 seconds。
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5。 Test trials are given after 8 to 12 conditioning trials。 In a test trial； instead of the “Dip” signal； the
instructor holds up a card with the word “Experience？” Students are not to taste the lemonade
powder （US） but are to experience if they salivated after “Pavlov” and without the US。 Get a show
of hands of those who did salivate and record it as a percentage of the class giving a conditioned
response。
6。 The same results are obtained with eyes opened or closed during test trials。
7。 After most of the class shows acquisition （80 to 100 percent of the class）； start extinction training by
withholding the “Dip” lemonade tasting procedure； instead； all trials are test trials “Pavlov”—
Experience？
8。 Have each student write down how strong the salivary response he or she experienced on the
conditioning trials was pared to the lemonade trials。 Also； inquire about the taste sensation；
physical response （“puckering”）； and any cognitive responses （e。g。； actively trying not to be
conditioned by thinking of something else）。
DATA ANALYSIS
1。 Plot the acquisition and extinction data。
2。 Add water and ice to remaining crystals and pause for refreshment。
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Gibbs； G。 D。 （1983）。 Making Classical Conditioning Understandable through Demonstration Technique。 Teaching of
Psychology； 10； 112…113。
Pavlov； I。 P。 （1928）。 Conditioned Reflexes （W。 H。 Grant； Trans。）。 New York： International。
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STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING MEMORY
OBJECTIVES
1。 To discuss some of the ways in which memory operates in everyday life。
2。 To consider how memory can be systematically distorted。
3。 To demonstrate some of the ways in which memory can be improved。
4。 To perform a within…subject experiment on immediate versus delayed recall as a function of depth
of processing。
OVERVIEW
The issue of memory and memory enhancement is inherently interesting。 To what extent are differences in
test performance between students a function of difference in their memory capacity？ To what extent can
this capacity be expanded？ In this section we will：
1。 Begin by going around the room and sharing （a） our earliest memories and （b） the most important
thing we have ever forgotten。
2。 Discuss how it is that we know those events actually took place。 What are validity checks on
memory？
3 。 Determine which students remembered to bring in a previously suggested item （e。g。； idea cards； if
they are being used）。 Ask those students who remembered to bring in the item what devices they
used to facilitate their recall； and ask those students who forgot the item why they believe their
memory failed。
4。 Review a variety of strategies for improving memory。
5。 Conduct one or both of the demonstrations on memory enhancement。
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Memory has long been of interest to psychologists and philosophers。 William James said the only thing that
distinguishes memory from other mental processes （perception； imagination； reasoning； etc。） is the belief
that the given event actually occurred in the past。 In his novel； 1984； George Orwell described techniques to
destroy this set of beliefs by rewriting the past to make it congruent
