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2。 In a jigsaw classroom; each pupil is given a part of the total material to 
master and then share with the other group members。 Interracial 
conflict and academic performance improve in classes where the 
jigsaw technique is applied 
3。 Deprovincialization involves people learning more about out…group 
social norms and customs and being less “provincial” about the 
correctness of the in…group 
IV。 The Psychology of Conflict and Peace 
A。 Peace psychology represents an interdisciplinary approach to prevention of nuclear war 
and the concurrent maintenance of peace 
1。 Aims of peace psychology include understanding of forces that give 
rise to false beliefs; misperceptions; and erroneous attributions on 
issues germane to nuclear arms; military strength; national security; 
and an understanding of how nations negotiate and make judgments 
in crisis situations 
B。 Obedience to Authority–Milgram’s obedience to authority 
1。 The Obedience Paradigm 
a) Participants delivered what they believed to be electric 
shocks to another individual 

(i) Participants’ social role was that of teacher; with 
teacher punishing errors made by the learner 
(ii) Teachers followed rule of increasing level of shock 
after each error; until learning was errorless 
(iii) Experimenter was the legitimate authority; 
presented rules and assigned roles 
(iv) Dependent variable was final level of shock that a 
teacher gave before refusing to continue obeying 
authority 
2。 The Test Situation 
a) Experiment staged to convince teachers (participants) they 
were causing pain and suffering; perhaps even death to 
another person。 In fact; no electric shock was given 

b) Learner (confederate) was to memorize word pairs and 
make prearranged errors 

c) Teachers were to shock learner following each error; 
increasing shock level with each error 

d) Learner “protested” as shock level increased until teacher 
hesitated or protested delivery of the next shock 

e) Experimenter told teacher to continue 

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CHAPTER 18: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; SOCIETY; AND CULTURE 

(i) Most participants plained or protested more; 
saying they could not continue 
(ii) Female participants were often in tears 
f) Experimental situation produced great conflict in 
participants 

3。 Results 
a) Psychiatrists had predicted participants would not “shock” 
above 150 volts; presuming that only abnormal individuals 
would blindly obey orders to harm another person 

b) Psychiatrists based their evaluations on the presumed 
dispositional qualities of participants; overlooking the power 
of the situation 

c) The majority of participants obeyed the authority fully。 They 
may have dissented; but they did not disobey 

d) Alternative explanations of results 

(i) Participants may not have believed they were 
actually shocking the confederate 
(ii) Participant’s obedience may have been a function of 
demand characteristics of the situation 
4。 Why do people obey authority? 
a) Power of the situation 

(i) Obedience is due to situational; rather than 
personality variables 
(ii) Obedience is high when obedience is first modeled 
by a peer or when a participant acts as an 
intermediary bystander 
b) Data indicate situational control of behavior; rather than 
individual differences in participants 

c) Other reasons include normative and informational sources 
of influence…people want to be liked and correct 

d) In ambiguous situations; people rely on others for cues for 
appropriate behavior 

e) Participants were probably be confused about how to 
disobey 

f) Obedience to authority is ingrained in childhood…obey 
authority without question 

5。 The Milgram experiments and You 
a) Resisting situational forces requires both awareness and 
acceptance of the fact that those forces can be powerful 
enough to affect almost anyone 

b) Even normal; well…meaning individuals are subject to 
potential frailty in the presence of strong situational and 
social forces 

363 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

C。 The Psychology of Genocide and War 
1。 Ervin Staub suggests that this set of cultural and psychological forces 
makes campaigns of terror possible: 
a) The starting point is often severely difficult life conditions; 
such as depression and political upheaval 

b) Under conditions of difficulty; people intensify the ordinary 
impulse to define in…groups and out…groups; creating 
scapegoats 

c) Because the scapegoat group is blamed for society’s ills; it 
bees easy to justify violence against them 

d) The violence against the scapegoat group begins to justify 
itself…; stopping the violence would mean admitting that the 
violence had been wrong to begin with 

2。 Concepts and Images of the Enemy 
a) When scapegoating does not lead to genocide; it may still 
lead to the creation of enemies 

b) Dehumanization; casting out…groups as animals; also helps 
create images of the enemy 

c) Why Will People Go to War? 

(i) In modern times; countries rarely go to war with the 
goal of domination or conquest。 Rather; they e 
to believe that they are protecting interests that are 
important to their survival and identity 
D。 Peace Psychology 
1。 The Peace Psychology Division of the American Psychological 
Association works to promote peace in the world 
2。 Forms of Leadership and Government 
a) Early psychologists focused on understanding the nature of 
the authoritarian personality behind the fascist mentality; 
the effects of propaganda and persuasive munication; 
and the impact of group atmosphere and leadership styles 
on group members that developed during WW II 

b) Leaders and authorities exert considerable power on group 
behavior and on other people 

c) Kurt Lewin investigated group dynamics; the ways in which 
leaders directly influenced their followers and the ways in 
which group processes changed the behavior of individuals 

(i) Leadership styles 
(a) Autocratic leaders: made all decisions and work 
assignments; but did not participate in group 
activities 
(b) Democratic leaders: encouraged and assisted 
group decision…making and planning 
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CHAPTER 18: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; SOCIETY; AND CULTURE 

(c) Laissez…faire leaders: allowed plete freedom; 
with little leader participation 
(ii) Results 
(a) Autocratic leaders group members were 
characterized by high levels of aggression and 
greater hostility; were more demanding of 
attention; were more likely to destroy their own 
property; and displayed more scapegoating 
behavior 
(b) Democratic leaders group members worked the 
most steadily and were most efficient; showed 
highest levels of interest; motivation; and 
originality; discontent was likely to be expressed 
openly; and group loyalty increased 
(c) Laissez…faire leaders group members were the 
least efficient; did the least amount of work of 
poorest quality; and goofed off 
3。 Fostering Contact to Facilitate Conflict Resolution 
a) The main approach of resolving conflict is the same one 
described for healing other types of prejudices。 People must 
be brought together in cooperative settings that can foster 
mutual trust and shared goals 

b) Interactive problem solving promises privacy and 
confidentiality; as well as open analytic discussions。 It also 
encourages appropriate expectations 

365 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 

1。 Ask your class how they think that they would have behaved if they were participants in 
the Milgram studies。 Most students will respond that there is no way that they would 
have shocked the helpless learner。 Explain to them that if they persist in believing this; 
they have missed a crucial lesson of social psychology: that “good” people are often no 
different from “bad” people。 The people are the same; it is the situation that is different。 
Destructive behavior often results when normal people find themselves in powerful 
situations。 The situation causes behavior; not the internal characteristics of the 
individual。 The good members of your class cannot realistically expect that they would 
behave differently in bad situations。 
2。 Have members of your class give examples of situations in which they felt pressure to 
behave in ways that they felt inappropriate。 How did they resolve the situation? What 
can be done to make nonconformity and disobedience a viable behavioral option? Are 
answers to this question likely to involve situational or dispositional changes? Why? 
3。 Discuss how aggression on television; in movies; and in other media influences 
aggression in real life。 What should; or could; be done about this well…established 
relationship? Is censorship a viable response? Why or why not? What about self…
censorship? Discuss how students can use this knowledge to reduce the likelihood that 
they themselves will be aggressive。 
4。 Discuss manipulation that might lead to increased altruism in society as a whole。 Simply; 
what could be done to make our world more helpful? Are dispositional or situational 
manipulates likely to produce more significant change? Why? Which type of 
manipulation would be easier to imple

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