心理学与生活-第109节

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by　Jones’　emotional　message　of　love　and　hope。　Small　demands　were　made　on　new　members；　like　
giving　one　percent　of　their　ines　and　giving　one　night　a　week　to　a　cause。　At　this　point；　
dissonance　due　to　inadequate　justification　could　occur。　The　dissonant　cognitions　were；　“I’m　
giving　of　my　time　and　money。　Why　am　I　doing　this？”　Was　giving　time　and　money　justified　based　
on　belief　in　the　cause？　As　the　mitment　to　the　cause　increased；　Jones　began　to　ask　for　more　
money　and　more　time；　until　the　members　had　given　all　they　owned　to　the　Temple　and　were　
neglecting　family　and　other　responsibilities　to　serve　the　Temple。　

Once　individuals　were　thoroughly　mitted　to　Jones　and　the　People’s　Temple；　another　aspect　
of　cognitive　dissonance　was　likely　to　bee　evident；　that　due　to　inconsistency　between　
mitment　and　information。　Before　the　People’s　Temple　moved　from　San　Francisco　to　an　
isolated　area　in　Guyana；　criticism　of　Jones　and　his　group　began　to　appear　in　the　media。　Suppose　
you　were　a　mitted　member　of　his　group；　and　you　heard　criticism　of　the　group　or　its　leader。　
You　may　have　had　the　dissonant　cognitions：　“I　have　given　all　I　have　to　the　Temple。　The　media　
claim　that　our　leader　is　an　insincere；　evil　person。”　The　first　cognition　is　irrevocable；　and　leaving　
the　group　would　be　economically　and　psychologically　difficult。　The　easiest　way　to　reduce　the　
dissonance　would　be　to　deny　the　adverse　information　and　to　denigrate　the　source。　Little　by　little　
the　people　of　the　People’s　Temple　were　firmly　entrapped。　

The　account　of　the　recruitment；　mitment；　and　death　of　the　followers　of　the　People’s　Temple　
provides　a　powerful　example　of　some　of　the　concepts　of　social　psychology；　such　as　persuasion；　
conformity；　and　obedience；　as　well　as　cognitive　dissonance。　The　account　could　also　be　analyzed　
in　terms　of　the　failure　in　critical　thinking　made　by　the　people　whose　faulty　reasoning　paved　the　
way　for　their　death　in　the　jungles　of　Guyana。　

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CHAPTER　17：　SOCIAL　PROCESSES　AND　RELATIONSHIPS　

Establishing　Trust　

One　of　the　essential　elements　in　a　long…term　relationship　is　the　development　of　a　sense　of　trust　
between　partners。　This　confident　belief　in　the　integrity　and　reliability　of　the　other　person　is　often　
achieved　through　a　process　of　reciprocal　self…disclosure　of　personal　information。　At　the　beginning　
of　any　relationship；　there　is　little　self…revelation　and；　thus；　no　basis　for　trust。　The　term　social　
penetration　refers　to　“overt　interpersonal　behaviors　that　occur　in　social　interaction；　as　well　as　
internal　subjective　processes　that　precede；　acpany；　and　follow　overt　exchange”　（Shaw　&　
Costanzo；　1982；　p。　153）。　Social　penetration　theory　consists　of　three　basic　divisions　of　analysis。　

·　Altman　and　Taylor　（1973）　outlined　their　assumptions　about　the　structure　of　
personality；　deeming　it　necessary　to　describe　their　assumptions　because　the　process　
of　social　penetration　involves　an　overlap　in　exploration　of　the　personalities　involved　
in　social　relationships。　This　overlap　is　the　beginning　of　trust。　

·　The　second　category　of　the　theory　details　how　costs　and　rewards　influence　the　
process　of　social　penetration；　and　specifies　the　forces　that　underlie　the　growth　of　
interpersonal　relationships。　

。　The　last　category　describes　the　particular　aspects　of　the　social　penetration　process。　
This　may　be　the　most　significant　part　of　the　theory；　as　it　deals　with　such　factors　as　
movement　into　the　intimate　regions　of　a　relationship；　involving　the　blending　of　
interactions　in　both　established　and　new　areas　of　exploration。　

The　theory　of　social　penetration　proposes　that　trust　begins　when　one　person　initiates　self…
disclosure。　If　the　other　person　responds　in　kind；　it　indicates　that　trust　has　been　accepted；　and　the　
basis　for　a　closer　relationship　has　been　established。　The　partners　continue　to　trade　self…
disclosures；　gradually　moving　through　deeper　levels　of　intimacy；　so　long　as　each　level　is　
mutually　satisfying。　The　final　level　of　intimacy　that　is　achieved　will　depend　on　the　needs　and　
interpersonal　skills　of　the　two　people　involved。　In　some　cases；　the　relationship　will　stop　at　a　more　
superficial　level。　In　others；　it　will　continue　to　grow　and　deepen。　

According　to　Jourard　（1964）；　there　is　an　optimal　level　of　self…disclosure　for　any　healthy；　well…
adjusted　individual。　A　person　who　never　discloses　will　not　be　able　to　have　close；　meaningful　
relationships　with　other　individuals。　Conversely；　a　person　who　goes　too　far　by　disclosing　
everything　to　anyone　who　will　listen　is　viewed　as　maladjusted　and　excessively　self…centered。　
Ideally　（according　to　Jourard）；　one　should　disclose　a　moderate　amount　of　personal　information　to　
most　acquaintances　and　reveal　a　lot　about　oneself　to　a　very　few　close　friends。　

Trust；　as　displayed　through　disclosure；　is　a　major　dimension　in　human　fears　of　rejection；　ridicule；　
and　betrayal　that　haunt　relationships。　Trust　washes　away　the　fears　of　rejection；　ridicule；　and　
betrayal　that　haunt　the　existence　of　many。　Trust　paves　the　road　to　friendship　and　intimacy；　it　is　at　
the　core　of　love　for　another　person　and　the　acceptance　of　oneself　

A　climate　of　trust　can　be　established　by　doing　the　following：　

。　Make　it　acceptable　for　other　people　to　talk　openly　about　themselves。　
。　Reciprocate　with　your　own　openness。　
。　Express　support　and　unconditional　acceptance　of　your　loved　ones；　although　you　may　
disapprove　of　some　of　their　specific　behaviors　（make　them　aware　of　this　difference）。　
。　Be　consistent　but　not　rigid　in　your　standards；　values；　and　behavior。　
。　Be　available　to　listen；　express　warmth；　and　empathize；　even　when　you　do　not　have　
an　answer　or　a　solution。　
。　Do　not　make　promises　you　do　not　intend　to　keep　or　cannot　deliver。　
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PSYCHOLOGY　AND　LIFE　

You　Only　Get　One　Chance　to　Make　a　First　Impression　

First　impressions　can　have　a　lasting　effect　on　how　we　see　others　and　on　how　they　see　us。　Some　
researchers　claim　that　first　impressions　are　typically　formed　within　the　first　8　to　10　seconds　of　
first　seeing　someone；　often　before　they　ever　actually　speak　to　us　or　shake　our　hand。　In　those　first　
few　seconds；　we　appear　to　“size　up”　the　person　according　to　their　physical　appearance；　their　eye　
contact；　their　facial　expressions；　their　manner　of　dress；　their　body　language；　and　their　overall　
demeanor。　Then　we　pare　our　perceptions　of　the　person　to　our　previous　experiences　with　
others　of　similar　demeanor；　etc。；　and　develop　a　“thumbnail　sketch”　of　what　type　of　person　we　
believe　this　person　is。　Much　of　this　is　done　unconsciously　and　automatically。　But　once　formed；　it　
can　be　difficult　to　change。　Because　of　our　tendency　to　selectively　perceive　only　the　aspects　of　the　
person’s　behavior　that　fit　our　first　impression；　the　person　will　have　to　behave　in　a　manner　that　is　
pervasively　and　enduringly　inconsistent　with　our　impression　before　we　will　change　it。　
Additionally；　since　the　way　we　behave　toward　the　person　can　affect　the　way　he　or　she　behaves　
toward　us；　our　first　impression　may　cause　us　to　behave　in　ways　that　almost　guarantee　a　response　
that　fits　our　first　impression。　This　results　in　a　“self…fulfilling　prophecy”　which　makes　it　unlikely　
that　we　will　ever　significantly　change　our　impression　of　the　person。　

It　is　for　these　reasons　that　making　a　good　first　impression；　or　at　least　a　neutral　first　impression；　
can　be　so　important。　In　a　situation　such　as　a　job　interview；　in　which　you　may　have　only　20　or　30　
minutes　to　interact　with　the　interviewer；　there　is　usually　not　enough　time　to　overe　a　negative　
first　impression。　Recruiters　have　told　me　that　something　as　simple　as　the　way　an　interviewee　
shakes　his　or　her　hands　can　sometimes　leave　a　lasting　impression　that　positively　or　negatively　
affects　the　remainder　of　the　interview。　

After　reviewing　the　power　of　first　impressions；　you　might　want　to　have　students　generate　ways　
they　can　pursue　self…enhancement　and　other…enhancement　strategies　in　order　to　try　and　create　as　
positive　a　first　impression　as　possible。　

BIOGRAPHICAL　PROFILES　

Solomon　Asch　（1907　—1996）　

Solomon　Asch　obtained　his　Ph。D。　at　Columbia　University　in　1932。　He　subsequently　taught　at　the　
New　School　for　Social　Research　in　New　York　City　and　at　Rutgers　University。　Asch’s　research　and　
conceptual　orientation　in　social　psychology　were　influenced　strongly　by　the　Gestalt　school；　
particularly　as　represented　in　the　writings　of　his　close　friend；　Max　Wertheimer。　Asch　is　best　
known　for　his　pioneering　research　on　conformity　and　the　effects　of　group　pressure　on　the　
behavior　of　the　individual。　Among　his　major　works　is　the　classic　text　Social　Psychology；　published　
in　1952。　

Leon　Festinger　（b。　1919）　

Born　in　New　York　City；　Festinger　obtained　both　his　M。A。　and　Ph。D。　at　the　State　University　of　
Iowa。　He　taught　at　various　schools；　including　Iowa；　Rochester；　MIT；　the　University　of　Minnesota；　
and　Stanford　University。　In　1968；　he　joined　the　New　School　for　Social　Research　in　New　York　City。　

Believing　that　humans　are　thinking　animals　desiring　to　bring　order　to　life；　Festinger　argued　that　
people　often　make　special　efforts　to　reduce　cognitive　inconsistencies。　His　theory　of　cognitive　
dissonance；　proposed　in　1957；　wa