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events under conditions of uncertainty using the covariation principle 
a) Covariation principle: People attribute behavior to a causal 
factor if that factor was present when the behavior occurred; 
but was absent whenever the behavior didn’t occur 

b) Covariation is assessed using three dimensions of 
information 

(i) Distinctiveness refers to whether the behavior is 
specific to a particular situation 
(ii) Consistency refers to whether the behavior occurs 
repeatedly in response to this situation 
(iii) Consensus refers to whether other people also 
produce the same behavior in the same situation 
C。 The Fundamental Attribution Error 
1。 The Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE) represents the dual 
tendency for people to overestimate dispositional factors and to 
underestimate situational ones when searching for the cause of some 
behavior of oute 
a) The FAE may be due in part to cultural sources 

D。 Self…serving bias leads people to take credit for their successes while denying 
responsibility for their failures 
E。 Expectations and Self…Fulfilling Prophecies 
339 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

1。 Self…fulfilling prophecies are predictions made about some future 
behavior or event that modifies interactions to produce what is 
expected 
2。 Expectations are powerful and self…fulfilling prophecies are most 
likely to occur when the individual has not had an opportunity to 
develop accurate expectations before judgments must be made 
F。 Behaviors that Confirm Expectations 
1。 Behavioral confirmation is the process by which someone’s 
expectations about another person actually influence the second 
person to behave in ways that confirm the original hypothesis 
a) Behavior confirmation depends on the availability of 
accurate information from the environment 

b) Expectations have their greatest effect when the actual state 
of the world is uncertain 

III。 Attitudes; Attitude Change; and Action 
A。 Attitudes and Behaviors 
1。 An attitude is a positive or negative evaluation of people; objects; or 
ideas 
2。 Three types of experiences give rise to attitudes: 
a) Cognitive 

b) Affective 

c) Behavioral 

3。 One property of attitudes that predicts behavior is accessibility; the 
strength of the association between an attitude object and a person’s 
evaluation of that object 
a) Attitudes are more accessible when they are based on direct 
experience 

4。 Attitudes are more predictive of behavior when the attitudes and 
behaviors are measured at the same level of specificity 
B。 Processes of Persuasion 
1。 Persuasion refers to deliberate efforts to change attitude 
2。 The Elaboration Likelihood Model suggests that there are two routes to 
persuasion: 
a) The Central Route represents circumstances in which people 
think carefully about a persuasive munication so that 
attitude change depends on the logical strength of the 
arguments。 Central route arguments depend on facts; 
features; and objective qualities。 

340 


CHAPTER 17: SOCIAL PROCESSES AND RELATIONSHIPS 

b) The Peripheral Route represents circumstances in which 
people do not focus critically on the message; but respond to 
superficial cues in the situation。 Peripheral route messages 
depend on sex appeal; image; prestige; and subjective 
qualities。 

3。 The route that people take depends on their motivation to process 
and critically analyze the message 
C。 Persuasion by Your Own Actions 
1。 Dissonance Theory 
a) Cognitive dissonance is the state of conflict someone 
experiences after making a decision; taking an action; or 
being exposed to information that is contrary to prior beliefs; 
feelings; or values 

(i) Dissonance…reducing activities modify the 
unpleasant state and achieve consonance among 
cognitions 
(ii) Dissonance has motivational force and impels the 
individual to act to reduce the unpleasant feeling 
(iii) The greater the dissonance; the greater the 
motivation to reduce it 
b) Under conditions of high dissonance; the individual acts to 
justify his or her behavior after the fact; engages in self…
persuasion; and often bees a convincing municator 

c) Recently researchers have begun to question whether 
dissonance effects generalize to cultures in which 
individuals have an interdependent conception of self; such 
as in Japan 

2。 Self…Perception theory 
a) Given that in Western culture; people are quick to make 
dispositional attributions about the behavior of others; it 
should not be surprising that they have the same bias 
toward themselves 

(i) Internal states are inferred by perceiving how one is 
acting now and recalling how one was active in a 
given situation in the past 
(ii) Self…knowledge allows the individual to reason 
backward to the most likely causes or determinants 
of behavior 
b) Self…perception theory lacks the motivational ponents of 
dissonance theory 

D。 pliance 
1。 Often people want to change not only your attitudes; but your 
behavior so that you ply with their requests。 pliance 
techniques include the following: 
2。 Reciprocity 
341 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

a) The Reciprocity Norm states that when someone else does 
something for you; you should do something for them 

b) The Door…in…the…Face Technique works because when people 
say “no” to a large request; they will often say “yes” to a 
more moderate request; it arises from the reciprocity norm 

3。 mitment 
a) The mitment principle states that if you make a small 
mitment; you will be more likely to mit to 
something larger in the future 

b) Use of the mitment strategy in pliance attempts is 
often called the Foot…in…the…Door Technique 

4。 Scarcity 
a) The scarcity principle states that people dislike feeling that 
they can’t have something; thus; people desire the scare 
object more 

b) The countdown timer on home shopping networks is a good 
example of the scarcity principle in action 

5。 Modeling 
a) People can bring about pliance and behavior change by 
modeling the desired behavior 

b) This technique draws on the principle of conformity 

IV。 Social Relationships 
A。 Liking 
1。 People tend to bee attracted to people with whom they are in 
close proximity; by virtue of mere exposure 
2。 Physical attractiveness often plays a role in development of 
friendships。 
3。 Similarity: Individuals similar to oneself provide a sense of personal 
validation; because a similar individual makes one feel that the 
attitudes one holds dear are the right ones。 Conversely; dissimilarity 
often leads to strong repulsion 
4。 Reciprocity: As individuals; we tend to like other individuals who 
like us。 
B。 Loving 
1。 In most cases; we first liked the person we e to love 
2。 The Experience of Love 
a) Conceptualizations of love cluster into three dimensions: 

(i) Passion: sexual passion and desire 
(ii) Intimacy: honesty and understanding 
(iii) mitment: devotion and sacrifice 
342 


CHAPTER 17: SOCIAL PROCESSES AND RELATIONSHIPS 

b) People’s ability to sustain loving relationships also depends 
on adult attachment style 

(iii) Secure attachment (55 %) 
(iv) Avoidant attachment (25 %) 
(v) Anxious…ambivalent attachment (20 %) 
c) Distinctions between types of love in relationships as they 
evolve over time: 

(i) Passionate love: a period of great intensity and 
absorption 
(ii) passionate love: a migration toward a state of 
lesser intensity; but greater intimacy 
3。 Factors that Allow a Relationship to Last 
a) One theory suggests that having a feeling that the “other” is 
included in one’s “self’ helps relationships last 

b) The Dependence Model suggests that likelihood to remain 
together is based on a series of judgments: 

(i) The degree to which intimacy; sex; emotional 
involvement; panionship; and intellectual 
involvement are important in the individual’s 
relationship 
(ii) The degree to which each of those needs is satisfied 
in the relationship 
(iii) For each need; whether there is anyone other than 
the current partner with whom the individual has an 
important relationship 
(iv) The degree to which each need is satisfied by the 
alternative relationship 
343 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 

1。 While colleges have historically been thought of as centers of divergent thought and 
intellectual freedom; many political conservatives feel that in recent years many colleges and 
universities have bee centers of “political correctness” and liberal intellectual rigidity。 
While these people may be overstating the case somewhat; certainly there are many 
pressures on college students to conform to certain “norms” that exist on every college 
campus。 These norms may be more social than political; but they still exist。 You might 
explore with your students what pressures they have felt to conform while in college; in 
terms of political thought; dress norms; social mores; and social attitudes。 Depending on 
where your class is taught; this could turn into a very interesting discussion。 (From Koss) 
2。 In discussing Milgram’s studies with your class; you might want to discuss the sociological 
implications。 Do studen

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