心理学与生活-第103节

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personality　disorders　rarely　e　in　for　treatment　on　their　own。　Often；　their　only　reason　
for　attempting　therapy　is　external　pressure；　such　as　a　court　order　or　a　demand　by　a　
spouse　who　threatens　to　leave　them。　Is　it　ethically　justifiable　to　subject　someone　to　an　
intensive；　expensive　effort　to　alter　his　or　her　style　of　life；　especially　when　that　person　
doesn't　want　to　be　there　and　the　chances　of　success　are　often　minimal？　One　might　argue　
that　if　the　person　is　not　harming　anyone　else；　such　efforts　are　not　ethically　justifiable。　On　
the　other　hand；　people　with　certain　types　of　personality　disorders；　such　as　antisocial；　
narcissistic；　and　paranoid　personality　disorder；　can　represent　a　real　danger　to　others　in　
some　cases。　The　duty　to　protect　others　might　then　justify　“forced”　therapy　in　these　cases。　
One　might　also　argue；　however；　that　since　success　rates　in　treatment　are　often　so　low；　the　
best　way　to　protect　others　is　to　imprison　people　with　these　disorders　when　their　behavior　
harms　others　in　an　illegal　manner。　What　do　students　think　about　these　issues？　
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PSYCHOLOGY　AND　LIFE　

SUPPLEMENTAL　LECTURE　MATERIAL　

The　Role　of　Critical　Thinking　in　Emotional　Problems　

Cognitive　therapists　feel　that　certain　emotional　disorders；　like　anxiety　and　depression；　can　be　
traced　to　irrational　and　illogical　ways　of　thinking。　Let　us　look　at　some　of　the　fallacies　that　
cognitive　psychologists　have　noted　in　the　thought　processes　of　some　people　with　emotional　
disorders。　

Faulty　generalization。　This　is　the　tendency　to　use　a　particular　event　or　item　of　information　as　
the　basis　for　a　general　conclusion。　The　man　whose　wife　leaves　him　concludes　that　no　one　
could　ever　love　him。　The　student　who　fails　a　test　concludes　that　she　is　a　failure。　The　woman　
who　gets　an　occasional　headache　concludes　that　she　is　an　unhealthy　person。　

Polarized　thinking。　This　is　the　tendency　to　classify　people；　events；　behavior；　and　thoughts　
rigidly　as　polar　opposites：　right　or　wrong；　good　or　bad。　This　is　also　called　dualistic　thinking；　
black…and…white　thinking；　and　bifurcation。　This　tendency　is　often　described　as　an　effort　to　
oversimplify　reality。　A　woman　feels　that　if　a　person　does　not　give　clear　evidence　of　liking　her；　
then　the　person　must　dislike　her。　An　adolescent　feels　that　thinking　about　anything　related　to　
sex　is　bad　and　tries　unsuccessfully　to　have　only　pure　thoughts。　

Incorrect　assumptions　about　what　is　safe　and　what　is　threatening。　The　maladjusted　person　may　feel　
that　it　is　threatening　to　express　his　views　or　to　show　her　anger。　Taking　the　initiative　to　talk　
with　a　person　of　the　opposite　sex　may　be　perceived　as　threatening。　The　person　could　just　
walk　away；　or　could　say　something　hurtful。　

Maladaptive　attitudes　toward　pleasure　and　pain。　These　are　the　attitudes　that　say　if　an　activity　is　
pleasant；　it　must　be　sinful；　and　if　it　is　unpleasant；　it　means　you　have　done　the　right　thing。　
This　is　analogous　to　thinking　that　a　medicine　is　no　good　unless　it　is　painful　to　apply　or　tastes　
bad。　This　type　of　thinking　may　result　from　selectively　remembering　pleasurable　behaviors　
that　were　punished　and　unpleasant　activities　that　were　rewarded。　Erikson；　who　was　a　
psychodynamic　psychologist；　suggested　that　while　the　superego；　or　conscience；　can　be　very　
powerful；　it　also　has　a　tendency　to　be　juvenile；　simply　because　it　was　established　in　
childhood。　He　thought　that　some　people　could　suffer　terrible　guilt　because　of　this　juvenile　
superego’s　conviction　that　pleasurable　things　are　“bad。”　

Tyranny　of　“shoulds。”　This　is　the　tendency　to　dedicate　one’s　life　to　self…imposed　obligations　
and　responsibilities；　and　to　feel　anxious；　depressed；　or　guilty　if　a　“should”　is　left　undone。　“I　
should　go　to　that　meeting；”　“I　should　write　to　Aunt　Hattie；”　“I　should　change　the　sheets　on　
my　bed。”　It　is　conceivable　that　a　person　could　have　more　“shoulds”　than　there　are　hours　in　
the　day　to　execute　them。　Psychodynamic　psychologists　would　attribute　this　situation　to　a　
domineering　superego。　

Biased　attributions。　Attributions　are　an　attempt　to　understand　events　by　proposing　a　cause　for　
them。　In　the　case　of　the　maladjusted　person；　the　primary　problem　is　the　causes　proposed　to　
explain　personal　behavior　or　events　that　involve　the　self。　The　bias　may　be　in　the　direction　of　
protecting　the　self；　in　which　case　the　maladjusted　person　attributes　successes　and　positive　
events　to　other　people　or　environmental　circumstances；　and　failures　and　negative　events　to　
his　or　her　own　efforts　or　abilities。　A　psychodynamic　psychologist　might　describe　this　as　
overuse　of　defense　mechanisms；　like　rationalization　and　projection。　What　does　a　well…
adjusted　individual　do？　He　or　she　internalizes；　or　takes　credit　for　success；　and　externalizes　
experiences　of　failure。　Maladjusted　individuals　must　do　the　opposite；　he　or　she　may　go　to　the　
opposite　extreme；　attributing　successes　and　positive　events　to　others　or　environmental　factors　

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and　failure　and　negative　events　to　his　or　her　own　lack　of　initiative　or　ability。　In　one　case；　the　

maladjusted　person　is　protecting　a　fragile　self…esteem；　and　in　the　other；　the　person　is　

confirming　low　self…esteem。　

Personalization　of　events。　This　is　a　mild　form　of　delusions　of　reference；　a　condition　in　which　

there　is　a　tendency　to　see　personal　significance　in　the　behavior　of　others。　A　person　goes　to　a　

party　at　which　the　host　serves　Mexican　food。　The　person　does　not　like　Mexican　food　and　

thinks　that　the　host　served　it　to　spite　him　or　her。　The　professor　scolds　the　class　for　poor　

performance　on　a　test。　A　student　feels　that　the　message　is　intended　for　him　or　her　personally。　

You　may　have　noticed　that　the　types　of　faulty　thinking　described　by　cognitive　psychologists　as　
roots　of　emotional　disorders　are　similar　to　uncritical；　rigid　thinking　in　general。　Faulty　thinking　
can　distort　our　interpretation　of　events；　and　it　can　cause　us　to　make　unfortunate　decisions。　

Why　Does　Therapy　Sometimes　Fail？　

Putting　the　blame　on　science。　

We　do　not　know　the　causal　agent　for　most　mental　disorders　because　mental　disorders；　unlike　
most　physical　illnesses；　have　no　easily　identifiable　germ；　bacteria；　virus；　organic　damage；　or　
psychosocial　factor　that　has　been　associated　with　the　majority　of　cases。　The　medical　model　
contends　that　we　will　eventually　identify　biological　causes　for　mental　disorders。　The　psychosocial　
model　points　to　life　experiences；　stress；　and　sociocultural　forces　as　causes。　Currently；　a　synthesis　
of　these　two　theories　prevails；　biological　and　psychosocial　forces　interact　as　causal　agents。　Mental　
disorders　seem　to　be　like　headaches　in　that　they　may　result　from　any　of　many　causes。　Therapists　
of　different　theoretical　orientations　have　their　own　explanations　for　mental　disorders。　

Diagnosis　of　most　mental　disorders　must　be　made　based　on　signs　and　symptoms；　what　the　
mental　health　professional　observes　in　the　patient’s　behavior；　and　the　patient’s　description　of　his　
plaint。　Symptom　patterns　are　usually　not　clear…cut　or　easily　associated　with　a　particular　
diagnostic　category；　and　mental　health　professionals　do　not　get　diagnostic　help　from　analysis　of　
blood　or　urine　or　X…rays。　

Putting　the　blame　on　the　therapists。　

Research　suggests　that　the　personality；　experience；　and　talent　of　the　therapist　are　more　important　
in　determining　the　success　of　therapy　than　the　type　of　therapy　utilized。　In　other　words；　the　
person…therapist　is　more　important　than　whether　the　therapy　is　psychoanalytic；　humanistic；　
behavioral；　or　eclectic。　

It　is　more　difficult　for　therapists　to　be　objective　than　it　is　for　medical　practitioners　to　be　so；　
because　the　therapist　cannot　entirely　avoid　intrusions　of　his　or　her　own　values　and　preferences　
into　the　perception　and　interpretation　of　the　patient’s　behavior　and　disclosures。　This　problem　is　
accentuated　when　the　therapist　and　the　patient　have　divergent　socioeconomic；　cultural；　or　ethnic　
backgrounds；　or　perhaps　are　of　different　genders。　

Carl　Rogers　said　that　to　be　effective　a　therapist　must　be　empathic；　able　to　feel　with　the　client；　
warm　and　accepting；　and　genuine。　Empathy　and　warmth　cannot　be　merely　a　professional　facade。　
Yet；　the　important　criteria　for　admission　to　most　graduate　and　professional　schools　are　
intellectual　ability　and　academic　achievement；　rather　than　warmth　and　genuineness。　There　may　
well　be　a　gift　or　a　talent　that　is　an　important　ingredient　in　therapy　that　many　therapists　do　not　
possess—or　that　was　selected　out　of　postgraduate　admissions。　

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Putting　the　blame　on　the　patients。　

For　convenience；　we　can　put　people　who　undergo　psychotherapy　into　one　of　two　categories。　
First；　there　are　those　who　are　in　therapy　because　they　were　coerced　or　forced　by　family；　authority　
figures；　or　the　courts。　Second；　there　are　those　who　voluntarily　seek　therapy　because　their　
abnormal　behavior　is　causing　them　pain　or　problems。　It　is　not　difficult　to　understand　why　
therapy　often　fails　when　patients　are　coerced　or　forced；　but　why　does　it　fail　to　help　those　who　
actively　seek　help　with　the　intention　of　cooperating　and