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actually　maintained　within　it；　or；　secondly；　by　some　increase　in

the　quantity　of　that　labour。

　　　　　The　improvement　in　the　productive　powers　of　useful　labour

depend；　first；　upon　the　improvement　in　the　ability　of　the

workman；　and；　secondly；　upon　that　of　the　machinery　with　which　he

works。　But　the　labour　of　artificers　and　manufacturers；　as　it　is

capable　of　being　more　subdivided；　and　the　labour　of　each　workman

reduced　to　a　greater　simplicity　of　operation　than　that　of　farmers

and　country　labourers；　so　it　is　likewise　capable　of　both　these

sorts　of　improvements　in　a　much　higher　degree。　In　this　respect；

therefore；　the　class　of　cultivators　can　have　no　sort　of　advantage

over　that　of　artificers　and　manufacturers。

　　　　　The　increase　in　the　quantity　of　useful　labour　actually

employed　within　any　society　must　depend　altogether　upon　the

increase　of　the　capital　which　employs　it；　and　the　increase　of

that　capital　again　must　be　exactly　equal　to　the　amount　of　the

savings　from　the　revenue；　either　of　the　particular　persons　who

manage　and　direct　the　employment　of　that　capital；　or　of　some

other　persons　who　lend　it　to　them。　If　merchants；　artificers；　and

manufacturers　are；　as　this　system　seems　to　suppose；　naturally

more　inclined　to　parsimony　and　saving　than　proprietors　and

cultivators；　they　are；　so　far；　more　likely　to　augment　the

quantity　of　useful　labour　employed　within　their　society；　and

consequently　to　increase　its　real　revenue；　the　annual　produce　of

its　land　and　labour。

　　　　　Fifthly　and　lastly；　though　the　revenue　of　the　inhabitants　of

every　country　was　supposed　to　consist　altogether；　as　this　system

seems　to　suppose；　in　the　quantity　of　subsistence　which　their

industry　could　procure　to　them；　yet；　even　upon　this　supposition；

the　revenue　of　a　trading　and　manufacturing　country　must；　other

things　being　equal；　always　be　much　greater　than　that　of　one

without　trade　or　manufactures。　By　means　of　trade　and

manufactures；　a　greater　quantity　of　subsistence　can　be　annually

imported　into　a　particular　country　than　what　its　own　lands；　in

the　actual　state　of　their　cultivation；　could　afford。　The

inhabitants　of　a　town；　though　they　frequently　possess　no　lands　of

their　own；　yet　draw　to　themselves　by　their　industry　such　a

quantity　of　the　rude　produce　of　the　lands　of　other　people　as

supplies　them；　not　only　with　the　materials　of　their　work；　but

with　the　fund　of　their　subsistence。　What　a　town　always　is　with

regard　to　the　country　in　its　neighbourhood；　one　independent　state

or　country　may　frequently　be　with　regard　to　other　independent

states　or　countries。　It　is　thus　that　Holland　draws　a　great　part

of　its　subsistence　from　other　countries；　live　cattle　from

Holstein　and　Jutland；　and　corn　from　almost　all　the　different

countries　of　Europe。　A　small　quantity　of　manufactured　produce

purchases　a　great　quantity　of　rude　produce。　A　trading　and

manufacturing　country；　therefore；　naturally　purchases　with　a

small　part　of　its　manufactured　produce　a　great　part　of　the　rude

produce　of　other　countries；　while；　on　the　contrary；　a　country

without　trade　and　manufactures　is　generally　obliged　to　purchase；

at　the　expense　of　a　great　part　of　its　rude　produce；　a　very　small

part　of　the　manufactured　produce　of　other　countries。　The　one

exports　what　can　subsist　and　accommodate　but　a　very　few；　and

imports　the　subsistence　and　accommodation　of　a　great　number。　The

other　exports　the　accommodation　and　subsistence　of　a　great

number；　and　imports　that　of　a　very　few　only。　The　inhabitants　of

the　one　must　always　enjoy　a　much　greater　quantity　of　subsistence

than　what　their　own　lands；　in　the　actual　state　of　their

cultivation；　could　afford。　The　inhabitants　of　the　other　must

always　enjoy　a　much　smaller　quantity。

　　　　　This　system；　however；　with　all　its　imperfections　is；

perhaps；　the　nearest　approximation　to　the　truth　that　has　yet　been

published　upon　the　subject　of　political　economy；　and　is　upon　that

account　well　worth　the　consideration　of　every　man　who　wishes　to

examine　with　attention　the　principles　of　that　very　important

science。　Though　in　representing　the　labour　which　is　employed　upon

land　as　the　only　productive　labour；　the　notions　which　it

inculcates　are　perhaps　too　narrow　and　confined；　yet　in

representing　the　wealth　of　nations　as　consisting；　not　in　the

unconsumable　riches　of　money；　but　in　the　consumable　goods

annually　reproduced　by　the　labour　of　the　society；　and　in

representing　perfect　liberty　as　the　only　effectual　expedient　for

rendering　this　annual　reproduction　the　greatest　possible；　its

doctrine　seems　to　be　in　every　respect　as　just　as　it　is　generous

and　liberal。　Its　followers　are　very　numerous；　and　as　men　are　fond

of　paradoxes；　and　of　appearing　to　understand　what　surpasses　the

comprehension　of　ordinary　people；　the　paradox　which　it　maintains；

concerning　the　unproductive　nature　of　manufacturing　labour；　has

not　perhaps　contributed　a　little　to　increase　the　number　of　its

admirers。　They　have　for　some　years　past　made　a　pretty

considerable　sect；　distinguished　in　the　French　republic　of

letters　by　the　name　of　The　Economists。　Their　works　have　certainly

been　of　some　service　to　their　country；　not　only　by　bringing　into

general　discussion　many　subjects　which　had　never　been　well

examined　before；　but　by　influencing　in　some　measure　the　public

administration　in　favour　of　agriculture。　It　has　been　in

consequence　of　their　representations；　accordingly；　that　the

agriculture　of　France　has　been　delivered　from　several　of　the

oppressions　which　it　before　laboured　under。　The　term　during　which

such　a　lease　can　be　granted；　as　will　be　valid　against　every

future　purchaser　or　proprietor　of　the　land；　has　been　prolonged

from　nine　to　twenty…seven　years。　The　ancient　provincial

restraints　upon　the　transportation　of　corn　from　one　province　of

the　kingdom　to　another　have　been　entirely　taken　away；　and　the

liberty　of　exporting　it　to　all　foreign　countries　has　been

established　as　the　common　law　of　the　kingdom　in　all　ordinary

cases。　This　sect；　in　their　works；　which　are　very　numerous；　and

which　treat　not　only　of　what　is　properly　called　Political

Economy；　or　of　the　nature　and　causes　of　the　wealth　of　nations；

but　of　every　other　branch　of　the　system　of　civil　government；　all

follow　implicitly　and　without　any　sensible　variation；　the

doctrine　of　Mr。　Quesnai。　There　is　upon　this　account　little

variety　in　the　greater　part　of　their　works。　The　most　distinct　and

best　connected　account　of　this　doctrine　is　to　be　found　in　a

little　book　written　by　Mr。　Mercier　de　la　Riviere；　some　time

intendant　of　Martinico；　entitled；　The　Natural　and　Essential　Order

of　Political　Societies。　The　admiration　of　this　whole　sect　for

their　master；　who　was　himself　a　man　of　the　greatest　modesty　and

simplicity；　is　not　inferior　to　that　of　any　of　the　ancient

philosophers　for　the　founders　of　their　respective　systems。　〃There

have　been；　since　the　world　began；〃　says　a　very　diligent　and

respectable　author；　the　Marquis　de　Mirabeau；　〃three　great

inventions　which　have　principally　given　stability　to　political

societies；　independent　of　many　other　inventions　which　have

enriched　and　adorned　them。　The　first　is　the　invention　of　writing；

which　alone　gives　human　nature　the　power　of　transmitting；　without

alteration；　its　laws；　its　contracts；　its　annals；　and　its

discoveries。　The　second　is　the　invention　of　money；　which　binds

together　all　the　relations　between　civilised　societies。　The　third

is　the　Economical　Table；　the　result　of　the　other　two；　which

completes　them　both　by　perfecting　their　object；　the　great

discovery　of　our　age；　but　of　which　our　posterity　will　reap　the

benefit。〃

　　　　　As　the　political　economy　of　the　nations　of　modern　Europe　has

been　more　favourable　to　manufactures　and　foreign　trade；　the

industry　of　the　towns；　than　to　agriculture；　the　industry　of　the

country；　so　that　of　other　nations　has　followed　a　different　plan；

and　has　been　more　favourable　to　agriculture　than　to　manufactures

and　foreign　trade。

　　　　　The　policy　of　China　favours　agriculture　more　than　all　other

employments。　In　China　the　condition　of　a　labourer　is　said　to　be

as　much　superior　to　that　of　an　artificer　as　in　most　parts　of

Europe　that　of　an　artificer　is　to　that　of　a　labourer。　In　China；

the　great　ambition　of　every　man　is　to　get　possession　of　some

little　bit　of　land；　either　in　property　or　in　lease；　and　leases

are　there　said　to　be　granted　upon　very　moderate　terms；　and　to　be

sufficiently　secured　to　the　lessees。　The　Chinese　have　little

respect　for　foreign　trade。　Your　beggarly　commerce！　was　the

language　in　which　the　Mandarins　of　Pekin　used　to　talk　to　Mr。　de

Lange；　the　Russian　envoy；　concerning　it。　Except　with　Japan；　the

Chinese　carry　on；　themselves；　and　in　their　own　bottoms；　little　or

no　foreign　trade；　and　it　is　only　into　one　or　two　ports　of　their

kingdom　that　they　even　admit　the　ships　of　foreign　nations。

Foreign　trade　therefore　is；　in　China；　every　way　confined　within　a

much　narrower　circle　than　that　to　which　it　would　naturally　extend

itself；　if　more　freedom　was　allowed　to　it；　either　in　their　own

ships；　or　in　those　of　foreign　nations。

　　　　　Manufactures；　as　in　a　small　bulk　they　frequently　cont