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maintains　and　employs　the　unproductive　class。　The　greater　this

surplus　the　greater　must　likewise　be　the　maintenance　and

employment　of　that　class。　The　establishment　of　perfect　justice；

of　perfect　liberty；　and　of　perfect　equality　is　the　very　simple

secret　which　most　effectually　secures　the　highest　degree　of

prosperity　to　all　the　three　classes。

　　　　　The　merchants；　artificers；　and　manufacturers　of　those

mercantile　states　which；　like　Holland　and　Hamburg；　consist

chiefly　of　this　unproductive　class；　are　in　the　same　manner

maintained　and　employed　altogether　at　the　expense　of　the

proprietors　and　cultivators　of　land。　The　only　difference　is；　that

those　proprietors　and　cultivators　are；　the　greater　part　of　them；

placed　at　a　most　inconvenient　distance　from　the　merchants；

artificers；　and　manufacturers　whom　they　supply　with　the　materials

of　their　work　and　the　fund　of　their　subsistences…　the　inhabitants

of　other　countries　and　the　subjects　of　other　governments。

　　　　　Such　mercantile　states；　however；　are　not　only　useful；　but

greatly　useful　to　the　inhabitants　of　those　other　countries。　They

fill　up；　in　some　measure；　a　very　important　void；　and　supply　the

place　of　the　merchants；　artificers；　and　manufacturers　whom　the

inhabitants　of　those　countries　ought　to　find　at　home；　but　whom；

from　some　defect　in　their　policy；　they　do　not　find　at　home。

　　　　　It　can　never　be　the　interest　of　those　landed　nations；　if　I

may　call　them　so；　to　discourage　or　distress　the　industry　of　such

mercantile　states　by　imposing　high　duties　upon　their　trade　or

upon　the　commodities　which　they　furnish。　Such　duties；　by

rendering　those　commodities　dearer；　could　serve　only　to　sink　the

real　value　of　the　surplus　produce　of　their　own　land；　with　which；

or；　what　comes　to　the　same　thing；　with　the　price　of　which　those

commodities　are　purchased。　Such　duties　could　serve　only　to

discourage　the　increase　of　that　surplus　produce；　and　consequently

the　improvement　and　cultivation　of　their　own　land。　The　most

effectual　expedient；　on　the　contrary；　for　raising　the　value　of

that　surplus　produce；　for　encouraging　its　increase；　and

consequently　the　improvement　and　cultivation　of　their　own　land

would　be　to　allow　the　most　perfect　freedom　to　the　trade　of　all

such　mercantile　nations。

　　　　　This　perfect　freedom　of　trade　would　even　be　the　most

effectual　expedient　for　supplying　them；　in　due　time；　with　all　the

artificers；　manufacturers；　and　merchants　whom　they　wanted　at

home；　and　for　filling　up　in　the　properest　and　most　advantageous

manner　that　very　important　void　which　they　felt　there。

　　　　　The　continual　increase　of　the　surplus　produce　of　their　land

would；　in　due　time；　create　a　greater　capital　than　what　could　be

employed　with　the　ordinary　rate　of　profit　in　the　improvement　and

cultivation　of　land；　and　the　surplus　part　of　it　would　naturally

turn　itself　to　the　employment　of　artificers　and　manufacturers　at

home。　But　those　artificers　and　manufacturers；　finding　at　home

both　the　materials　of　their　work　and　the　fund　of　their

subsistence；　might　immediately　even　with　much　less　art　and　skill

be　able　to　work　as　cheap　as　the　like　artificers　and　manufacturers

of　such　mercantile　states　who　had　both　to　bring　from　a　great

distance。　Even　though；　from　want　of　art　and　skill；　they　might　not

for　some　time　be　able　to　work　as　cheap；　yet；　finding　a　market　at

home；　they　might　be　able　to　sell　their　work　there　as　cheap　as

that　of　the　artificers　and　manufacturers　of　such　mercantile

states；　which　could　not　be　brought　to　that　market　but　from　so

great　a　distance；　and　as　their　art　and　skill　improved；　they　would

soon　be　able　to　sell　it　cheaper。　The　artificers　and　manufacturers

of　such　mercantile　states；　therefore；　would　immediately　be

rivalled　in　the　market　of　those　landed　nations；　and　soon　after

undersold　and　jostled　out　of　it　altogether。　The　cheapness　of　the

manufactures　of　those　landed　nations；　in　consequence　of　the

gradual　improvements　of　art　and　skill；　would；　in　due　time；　extend

their　sale　beyond　the　home　market；　and　carry　them　to　many　foreign

markets；　from　which　they　would　in　the　same　manner　gradually

jostle　out　many　of　the　manufacturers　of　such　mercantile　nations。

　　　　　This　continual　increase　both　of　the　rude　and　manufactured

produce　of　those　landed　nations　would　in　due　time　create　a

greater　capital　than　could；　with　the　ordinary　rate　of　profit；　be

employed　either　in　agriculture　or　in　manufactures。　The　surplus　of

this　capital　would　naturally　turn　itself　to　foreign　trade；　and　be

employed　in　exporting　to　foreign　countries　such　parts　of　the　rude

and　manufactured　produce　of　its　own　country　as　exceeded　the

demand　of　the　home　market。　In　the　exportation　of　the　produce　of

their　own　country；　the　merchants　of　a　landed　nation　would　have　an

advantage　of　the　same　kind　over　those　of　mercantile　nations　which

its　artificers　and　manufacturers　had　over　the　artificers　and

manufacturers　of　such　nations；　the　advantage　of　finding　at　home

that　cargo　and　those　stores　and　provisions　which　the　others　were

obliged　to　seek　for　at　a　distance。　With　inferior　art　and　skill　in

navigation；　therefore；　they　would　be　able　to　sell　that　cargo　as

cheap　in　foreign　markets　as　the　merchants　of　such　mercantile

nations；　and　with　equal　art　and　skill　they　would　be　able　to　sell

it　cheaper。　They　would　soon；　therefore；　rival　those　mercantile

nations　in　this　branch　of　foreign　trade；　and　in　due　time　would

jostle　them　out　of　it　altogether。

　　　　　According　to　this　liberal　and　generous　system；　therefore；

the　most　advantageous　method　in　which　a　landed　nation　can　raise

up　artificers；　manufacturers；　and　merchants　of　its　own　is　to

grant　the　most　perfect　freedom　of　trade　to　the　artificers；

manufacturers；　and　merchants　of　all　other　nations。　It　thereby

raises　the　value　of　the　surplus　produce　of　its　own　land；　of　which

the　continual　increase　gradually　establishes　a　fund；　which　in　due

time　necessarily　raises　up　all　the　artificers；　manufacturers；　and

merchants　whom　it　has　occasion　for。

　　　　　When　a　landed　nation；　on　the　contrary；　oppresses　either　by

high　duties　or　by　prohibitions　the　trade　of　foreign　nations；　it

necessarily　hurts　its　own　interest　in　two　different　ways。　First；

by　raising　the　price　of　all　foreign　goods　and　of　all　sorts　of

manufactures；　it　necessarily　sinks　the　real　value　of　the　surplus

produce　of　its　own　land；　with　which；　or；　what　comes　to　the　same

thing；　with　the　price　of　which　it　purchases　those　foreign　goods

and　manufactures。　Secondly；　by　giving　a　sort　of　monopoly　of　the

home　market　to　its　own　merchants；　artificers；　and　manufacturers；

it　raises　the　rate　of　mercantile　and　manufacturing　profit　in

proportion　to　that　of　agricultural　profit；　and　consequently

either　draws　from　agriculture　a　part　of　the　capital　which　had

before　been　employed　in　it；　or　hinders　from　going　to　it　a　part　of

what　would　otherwise　have　gone　to　it。　This　policy；　therefore；

discourages　agriculture　in　two　different　ways；　first；　by　sinking

the　real　value　of　its　produce；　and　thereby　lowering　the　rate　of

its　profit；　and；　secondly；　by　raising　the　rate　of　profit　in　all

other　employments。　Agriculture　is　rendered　less　advantageous；　and

trade　and　manufactures　more　advantageous　than　they　otherwise

would　be；　and　every　man　is　tempted　by　his　own　interest　to　turn；

as　much　as　he　can；　both　his　capital　and　his　industry　from　the

former　to　the　latter　employments。

　　　　　Though；　by　this　oppressive　policy；　a　landed　nation　should　be

able　to　raise　up　artificers；　manufacturers；　and　merchants　of　its

own　somewhat　sooner　than　it　could　do　by　the　freedom　of　trade　a

matter；　however；　which　is　not　a　little　doubtful…　yet　it　would

raise　them　up；　if　one　may　say　so；　prematurely；　and　before　it　was

perfectly　ripe　for　them。　By　raising　up　too　hastily　one　species　of

industry；　it　would　depress　another　more　valuable　species　of

industry。　By　raising　up　too　hastily　a　species　of　industry　which

only　replaces　the　stock　which　employs　it；　together　with　the

ordinary　profit；　it　would　depress　a　species　of　industry　which；

over　and　above　replacing　that　stock　with　its　profit；　affords

likewise　a　net　produce；　a　free　rent　to　the　landlord。　It　would

depress　productive　labour；　by　encouraging　too　hastily　that　labour

which　is　altogether　barren　and　unproductive。

　　　　　In　what　manner；　according　to　this　system；　the　sum　total　of

the　annual　produce　of　the　land　is　distributed　among　the　three

classes　above　mentioned；　and　in　what　manner　the　labour　of　the

unproductive　class　does　no　more　than　replace　the　value　of　its　own

consumption；　without　increasing　in　any　respect　the　value　of　that

sum　total；　is　represented　by　Mr。　Quesnai；　the　very　ingenious　and

profound　author　of　this　system；　in　some　arithmetical　formularies。

The　first　of　these　formularies；　which　by　way　of　eminence　he

peculiarly　distinguishes　by　the　name　of　the　Economical　Table；

represents　the　manner　in　which　he　supposes　the　distribution　takes

place　in　a　state　of　the　most　perfect　liberty　and　therefore　of　the

highest　prosperity…　in　a　state　where　the　annual　produce　is　such

as　to　afford　the　greatest　possible　net　produce；　and　where　each

class　enjoys　its　proper　share　of　the　whole　annua