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and　ingenuity　in　France。　It　would　not；　surely；　be　worth　while　to

examine　at　great　length　the　errors　of　a　system　which　never　has

done；　and　probably　never　will　do；　any　harm　in　any　part　of　the

world。　I　shall　endeavour　to　explain；　however；　as　distinctly　as　I

can；　the　great　outlines　of　this　very　ingenious　system。

　　　　　Mr。　Colbert；　the　famous　minister　of　Louis　XIV；　was　a　man　of

probity；　of　great　industry　and　knowledge　of　detail；　of　great

experience　and　acuteness　in　the　examination　of　public　accounts；

and　of　abilities；　in　short；　every　way　fitted　for　introducing

method　and　good　order　into　the　collection　and　expenditure　of　the

public　revenue。　That　minister　had　unfortunately　embraced　all　the

prejudices　of　the　mercantile　system；　in　its　nature　and　essence　a

system　of　restraint　and　regulation；　and　such　as　could　scarce　fail

to　be　agreeable　to　a　laborious　and　plodding　man　of　business；　who

had　been　accustomed　to　regulate　the　different　departments　of

public　offices；　and　to　establish　the　necessary　checks　and

controls　for　confining　each　to　its　proper　sphere。　The　industry

and　commerce　of　a　great　country　he　endeavoured　to　regulate　upon

the　same　model　as　the　departments　of　a　public　office；　and　instead

of　allowing　every　man　to　pursue　his　own　interest　in　his　own　way；

upon　the　liberal　plan　of　equality；　liberty；　and　justice；　he

bestowed　upon　certain　branches　of　industry　extraordinary

privileges；　while　he　laid　others　under　as　extraordinary

restraints。　He　was　not　only　disposed；　like　other　European

ministers；　to　encourage　more　the　industry　of　the　towns　than　that

of　the　country；　but；　in　order　to　support　the　industry　of　the

towns；　he　was　willing　even　to　depress　and　keep　down　that　of　the

country。　In　order　to　render　provisions　cheap　to　the　inhabitants

of　the　towns；　and　thereby　to　encourage　manufactures　and　foreign

commerce；　he　prohibited　altogether　the　exportation　of　corn；　and

thus　excluded　the　inhabitants　of　the　country　from　every　foreign

market　for　by　far　the　most　important　part　of　the　produce　of　their

industry。　This　prohibition；　joined　to　the　restraints　imposed　by

the　ancient　provincial　laws　of　France　upon　the　transportation　of

corn　from　one　province　to　another；　and　to　the　arbitrary　and

degrading　taxes　which　are　levied　upon　the　cultivators　in　almost

all　the　provinces；　discouraged　and　kept　down　the　agriculture　of

that　country　very　much　below　the　state　to　which　it　would

naturally　have　risen　in　so　very　fertile　a　soil　and　so　very　happy

a　climate。　This　state　of　discouragement　and　depression　was　felt

more　or　less　in　every　different　part　of　the　country；　and　many

different　inquiries　were　set　on　foot　concerning　the　causes　of　it。

One　of　those　causes　appeared　to　be　the　preference　given；　by　the

institutions　of　Mr。　Colbert；　to　the　industry　of　the　towns　above

that　of　the　country。

　　　　　If　the　rod　be　bent　too　much　one　way；　says　the　proverb；　in

order　to　make　it　straight　you　must　bend　it　as　much　the　other。　The

French　philosophers；　who　have　proposed　the　system　which

represents　agriculture　as　the　sole　source　of　the　revenue　and

wealth　of　every　country；　seem　to　have　adopted　this　proverbial

maxim；　and　as　in　the　plan　of　Mr。　Colbert　the　industry　of　the

towns　was　certainly　overvalued　in　comparison　with　that　of　the

country；　so　in　their　system　it　seems　to　be　as　certainly

undervalued。

　　　　　The　different　orders　of　people　who　have　ever　been　supposed

to　contribute　in　any　respect　towards　the　annual　produce　of　the

land　and　labour　of　the　country；　they　divide　into　three　classes。

The　first　is　the　class　of　the　proprietors　of　land。　The　second　is

the　class　of　the　cultivators；　of　farmers　and　country　labourers；

whom　they　honour　with　the　peculiar　appellation　of　the　productive

class。　The　third　is　the　class　of　artificers；　manufacturers；　and

merchants；　whom　they　endeavour　to　degrade　by　the　humiliating

appellation　of　the　barren　or　unproductive　class。

　　　　　The　class　of　proprietors　contributes　to　the　annual　produce

by　the　expense　which　they　may　occasionally　lay　out　upon　the

improvement　of　the　land；　upon　the　buildings；　drains；　enclosures；

and　other　ameliorations；　which　they　may　either　make　or　maintain

upon　it；　and　by　means　of　which　the　cultivators　are　enabled；　with

the　same　capital；　to　raise　a　greater　produce；　and　consequently　to

pay　a　greater　rent。　This　advanced　rent　may　be　considered　as　the

interest　or　profit　due　to　the　proprietor　upon　the　expense　or

capital　which　he　thus　employs　in　the　improvement　of　his　land。

Such　expenses　are　in　this　system　called　ground　expenses　（depenses

foncieres。）

　　　　　The　cultivators　or　farmers　contribute　to　the　annual　produce

by　what　are　in　this　system　called　the　original　and　annual

expenses　（depenses　primitives　et　depenses　annuelles）　which　they

lay　out　upon　the　cultivation　of　the　land。　The　original　expenses

consist　in　the　instruments　of　husbandry；　in　the　stock　of　cattle；

in　the　seed；　and　in　the　maintenance　of　the　farmer's　family；

servants；　and　cattle　during　at　least　a　great　part　of　the　first

year　of　his　occupancy；　or　till　he　can　receive　some　return　from

the　land。　The　annual　expenses　consist　in　the　seed；　in　the　wear

and　tear　of　the　instruments　of　husbandry；　and　in　the　annual

maintenance　of　the　farmer's　servants　and　cattle；　and　of　his

family　too；　so　far　as　any　part　of　them　can　be　considered　as

servants　employed　in　cultivation。　That　part　of　the　produce　of　the

land　which　remains　to　him　after　paying　the　rent　ought　to　be

sufficient；　first；　to　replace　to　him　within　a　reasonable　time；　at

least　during　the　term　of　his　occupancy；　the　whole　of　his　original

expenses；　together　with　the　ordinary　profits　of　stock；　and；

secondly；　to　replace　to　him　annually　the　whole　of　his　annual

expenses；　together　likewise　with　the　ordering　profits　of　stock。

Those　two　sorts　of　expenses　are　two　capitals　which　the　farmer

employs　in　cultivation；　and　unless　they　are　regularly　restored　to

him；　together　with　a　reasonable　profit；　he　cannot　carry　on　his

employment　upon　a　level　with　other　employments；　but；　from　a

regard　to　his　own　interest；　must　desert　it　as　soon　as　possible

and　seek　some　other。　That　part　of　the　produce　of　the　land　which

is　thus　necessary　for　enabling　the　farmer　to　continue　his

business　ought　to　be　considered　as　a　fund　sacred　to　cultivation；

which；　if　the　landlord　violates；　he　necessarily　reduces　the

produce　of　his　own　land；　and　in　a　few　years　not　only　disables　the

farmer　from　paying　this　racked　rent；　but　from　paying　the

reasonable　rent　which　he　might　otherwise　have　got　for　his　land。

The　rent　which　properly　belongs　to　the　landlord　is　no　more　than

the　net　produce　which　remains　after　paying　in　the　completest

manner　all　the　necessary　expenses　which　must　be　previously　laid

out　in　order　to　raise　the　gross　or　the　whole　produce。　It　is

because　the　labour　of　the　cultivators；　over　and　above　paying

completely　all　those　necessary　expenses；　affords　a　net　produce　of

this　kind　that　this　class　of　people　are　in　this　system　peculiarly

distinguished　by　the　honourable　appellation　of　the　productive

class。　Their　original　and　annual　expenses　are　for　the　same　reason

called；　in　this　system；　productive　expenses；　because；　over　and

above　replacing　their　own　value；　they　occasion　the　annual

reproduction　of　this　net　produce。

　　　　　The　ground　expenses；　as　they　are　called；　or　what　the

landlord　lays　out　upon　the　improvement　of　his　land；　are　in　this

system；　too；　honoured　with　the　appellation　of　productive

expenses。　Till　the　whole　of　those　expenses；　together　with　the

ordinary　profits　of　stock；　have　been　completely　repaid　to　him　by

the　advanced　rent　which　he　gets　from　his　land；　that　advanced　rent

ought　to　be　regarded　as　sacred　and　inviolable；　both　by　the　church

and　by　the　king；　ought　to　be　subject　neither　to　tithe　nor　to

taxation。　If　it　is　otherwise；　by　discouraging　the　improvement　of

land　the　church　discourages　the　future　increase　of　her　own

tithes；　and　the　king　the　future　increase　of　his　own　taxes。　As　in

a　well…ordered　state　of　things；　therefore；　those　ground　expenses；

over　and　above　reproducing　in　the　completest　manner　their　own

value；　occasion　likewise　after　a　certain　time　a　reproduction　of　a

net　produce；　they　are　in　this　system　considered　as　productive

expenses。

　　　　　The　ground　expenses　of　the　landlord；　however；　together　with

the　original　and　the　annual　expenses　of　the　farmer；　are　the　only

three　sorts　of　expenses　which　in　this　system　are　considered　as

productive。　All　other　expenses　and　all　other　orders　of　people；

even　those　who　in　the　common　apprehensions　of　men　are　regarded　as

the　most　productive；　are　in　this　account　of　things　represented　as

altogether　barren　and　unproductive。

　　　　　Artificers　and　manufacturers　in　particular；　whose　industry；

in　the　common　apprehensions　of　men；　increases　so　much　the　value

of　the　rude　produce　of　land；　are　in　this　system　represented　as　a

class　of　people　altogether　barren　and　unproductive。　Their　labour；

it　is　said；　replaces　only　the　stock　which　employs　them；　together

with　its　ordinary　profits。　That　stock　consists　in　the　materials；

tools；　and　wages　advanced　to　them　by　their　employer；　and　is　the

fund　destined　for　their　employment