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and ingenuity in France。 It would not; surely; be worth while to

examine at great length the errors of a system which never has

done; and probably never will do; any harm in any part of the

world。 I shall endeavour to explain; however; as distinctly as I

can; the great outlines of this very ingenious system。

     Mr。 Colbert; the famous minister of Louis XIV; was a man of

probity; of great industry and knowledge of detail; of great

experience and acuteness in the examination of public accounts;

and of abilities; in short; every way fitted for introducing

method and good order into the collection and expenditure of the

public revenue。 That minister had unfortunately embraced all the

prejudices of the mercantile system; in its nature and essence a

system of restraint and regulation; and such as could scarce fail

to be agreeable to a laborious and plodding man of business; who

had been accustomed to regulate the different departments of

public offices; and to establish the necessary checks and

controls for confining each to its proper sphere。 The industry

and commerce of a great country he endeavoured to regulate upon

the same model as the departments of a public office; and instead

of allowing every man to pursue his own interest in his own way;

upon the liberal plan of equality; liberty; and justice; he

bestowed upon certain branches of industry extraordinary

privileges; while he laid others under as extraordinary

restraints。 He was not only disposed; like other European

ministers; to encourage more the industry of the towns than that

of the country; but; in order to support the industry of the

towns; he was willing even to depress and keep down that of the

country。 In order to render provisions cheap to the inhabitants

of the towns; and thereby to encourage manufactures and foreign

commerce; he prohibited altogether the exportation of corn; and

thus excluded the inhabitants of the country from every foreign

market for by far the most important part of the produce of their

industry。 This prohibition; joined to the restraints imposed by

the ancient provincial laws of France upon the transportation of

corn from one province to another; and to the arbitrary and

degrading taxes which are levied upon the cultivators in almost

all the provinces; discouraged and kept down the agriculture of

that country very much below the state to which it would

naturally have risen in so very fertile a soil and so very happy

a climate。 This state of discouragement and depression was felt

more or less in every different part of the country; and many

different inquiries were set on foot concerning the causes of it。

One of those causes appeared to be the preference given; by the

institutions of Mr。 Colbert; to the industry of the towns above

that of the country。

     If the rod be bent too much one way; says the proverb; in

order to make it straight you must bend it as much the other。 The

French philosophers; who have proposed the system which

represents agriculture as the sole source of the revenue and

wealth of every country; seem to have adopted this proverbial

maxim; and as in the plan of Mr。 Colbert the industry of the

towns was certainly overvalued in comparison with that of the

country; so in their system it seems to be as certainly

undervalued。

     The different orders of people who have ever been supposed

to contribute in any respect towards the annual produce of the

land and labour of the country; they divide into three classes。

The first is the class of the proprietors of land。 The second is

the class of the cultivators; of farmers and country labourers;

whom they honour with the peculiar appellation of the productive

class。 The third is the class of artificers; manufacturers; and

merchants; whom they endeavour to degrade by the humiliating

appellation of the barren or unproductive class。

     The class of proprietors contributes to the annual produce

by the expense which they may occasionally lay out upon the

improvement of the land; upon the buildings; drains; enclosures;

and other ameliorations; which they may either make or maintain

upon it; and by means of which the cultivators are enabled; with

the same capital; to raise a greater produce; and consequently to

pay a greater rent。 This advanced rent may be considered as the

interest or profit due to the proprietor upon the expense or

capital which he thus employs in the improvement of his land。

Such expenses are in this system called ground expenses (depenses

foncieres。)

     The cultivators or farmers contribute to the annual produce

by what are in this system called the original and annual

expenses (depenses primitives et depenses annuelles) which they

lay out upon the cultivation of the land。 The original expenses

consist in the instruments of husbandry; in the stock of cattle;

in the seed; and in the maintenance of the farmer's family;

servants; and cattle during at least a great part of the first

year of his occupancy; or till he can receive some return from

the land。 The annual expenses consist in the seed; in the wear

and tear of the instruments of husbandry; and in the annual

maintenance of the farmer's servants and cattle; and of his

family too; so far as any part of them can be considered as

servants employed in cultivation。 That part of the produce of the

land which remains to him after paying the rent ought to be

sufficient; first; to replace to him within a reasonable time; at

least during the term of his occupancy; the whole of his original

expenses; together with the ordinary profits of stock; and;

secondly; to replace to him annually the whole of his annual

expenses; together likewise with the ordering profits of stock。

Those two sorts of expenses are two capitals which the farmer

employs in cultivation; and unless they are regularly restored to

him; together with a reasonable profit; he cannot carry on his

employment upon a level with other employments; but; from a

regard to his own interest; must desert it as soon as possible

and seek some other。 That part of the produce of the land which

is thus necessary for enabling the farmer to continue his

business ought to be considered as a fund sacred to cultivation;

which; if the landlord violates; he necessarily reduces the

produce of his own land; and in a few years not only disables the

farmer from paying this racked rent; but from paying the

reasonable rent which he might otherwise have got for his land。

The rent which properly belongs to the landlord is no more than

the net produce which remains after paying in the completest

manner all the necessary expenses which must be previously laid

out in order to raise the gross or the whole produce。 It is

because the labour of the cultivators; over and above paying

completely all those necessary expenses; affords a net produce of

this kind that this class of people are in this system peculiarly

distinguished by the honourable appellation of the productive

class。 Their original and annual expenses are for the same reason

called; in this system; productive expenses; because; over and

above replacing their own value; they occasion the annual

reproduction of this net produce。

     The ground expenses; as they are called; or what the

landlord lays out upon the improvement of his land; are in this

system; too; honoured with the appellation of productive

expenses。 Till the whole of those expenses; together with the

ordinary profits of stock; have been completely repaid to him by

the advanced rent which he gets from his land; that advanced rent

ought to be regarded as sacred and inviolable; both by the church

and by the king; ought to be subject neither to tithe nor to

taxation。 If it is otherwise; by discouraging the improvement of

land the church discourages the future increase of her own

tithes; and the king the future increase of his own taxes。 As in

a well…ordered state of things; therefore; those ground expenses;

over and above reproducing in the completest manner their own

value; occasion likewise after a certain time a reproduction of a

net produce; they are in this system considered as productive

expenses。

     The ground expenses of the landlord; however; together with

the original and the annual expenses of the farmer; are the only

three sorts of expenses which in this system are considered as

productive。 All other expenses and all other orders of people;

even those who in the common apprehensions of men are regarded as

the most productive; are in this account of things represented as

altogether barren and unproductive。

     Artificers and manufacturers in particular; whose industry;

in the common apprehensions of men; increases so much the value

of the rude produce of land; are in this system represented as a

class of people altogether barren and unproductive。 Their labour;

it is said; replaces only the stock which employs them; together

with its ordinary profits。 That stock consists in the materials;

tools; and wages advanced to them by their employer; and is the

fund destined for their employment

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