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dispersed through all the different corners of the country;

cannot; without great difficulty; combine together for the

purpose either of imposing monopolies upon their fellow citizens;

or of exempting themselves from such as may have been imposed

upon them by other people。 Manufacturers of all kinds; collected

together in numerous bodies in all great cities; easily can。 Even

the horns of cattle are prohibited to be exported; and the two

insignificant trades of the horner and combmaker enjoy; in this

respect; a monopoly against the graziers。

     Restraints; either by prohibitions or by taxes; upon the

exportation of goods which are partially; but not completely

manufactured; are not peculiar to the manufacture of leather。 As

long as anything remains to be done; in order to fit any

commodity for immediate use and consumption; our manufacturers

think that they themselves ought to have the doing of it。 Woolen

yarn and worsted are prohibited to be exported under the same

penalties as wool。 Even white cloths are subject to a duty upon

exportation; and our dyers have so far obtained a monopoly

against our clothiers。 Our clothiers would probably have been

able to defend themselves against it; but it happens that the

greater part of our principal clothiers are themselves likewise

dyers。 Watch…cases; clockcases; and dial…plates for clocks and

watches have been prohibited to be exported。 Our clock…makers and

watch…makers are; it seems; unwilling that the price of this sort

of workmanship should be raised upon them by the competition of

foreigners。

     By some old statutes of Edward M; Henry VIII; and Edward VI;

the exportation of all metals was prohibited。 Lead and tin were

alone excepted probably on account of the great abundance of

those metals; in the exportation of which a considerable part of

the trade of the kingdom in those days consisted。 For the

encouragement of the mining trade; the 5th of William and Mary;

c。 17; exempted from the prohibition iron; copper; and mundic

metal made from British ore。 The exportation of all sorts of

copper bars; foreign as well as British; was afterwards permitted

by the 9th and 10th of William III; c。 26。 The exportation of

unmanufactured brass; of what is called gun…metal; bell…metal;

and shroff…metal; still continues to be prohibited。 Brass

manufactures of all sorts may be exported duty free。

     The exportation of the materials of manufacture; where it is

not altogether prohibited; is in many cases subjected to

considerable duties。

     By the 8th George I; c。 15; the exportation of all goods;

the produce or manufacture of Great Britain; upon which any

duties had been imposed by former statutes; was rendered duty

free。 The following goods; however; were excepted: alum; lead;

lead ore; tin; tanned leather; copperas; coals; wool cards; white

woolen cloths; lapis calaminaris; skins of all sorts; glue; coney

hair or wool; hares' wool; hair of all sorts; horses; and

litharge of lead。 If you expect horses; all these are either

materials of manufacture; or incomplete manufactures (which may

be considered as materials for still further manufacture); or

instruments of trade。 This statute leaves them subject to all the

old duties which had ever been imposed upon them; the old subsidy

and one per cent outwards。

     By the same statute a great number of foreign drugs for

dyers' use are exempted from all duties upon importation。 Each of

them; however; is afterwards subjected to a certain duty; not

indeed a very heavy one; upon exportation。 Our dyers; it seems;

while they thought it for their interest to encourage the

importation of those drugs; by an exemption from all duties;

thought it likewise for their interest to throw some small

discouragement upon their exportation。 The avidity; however;

which suggested this notable piece of mercantile ingenuity; most

probably disappointed itself of its object。 It necessarily taught

the importers to be more careful than they might otherwise have

been that their importation should not exceed what was necessary

for the supply of the home market。 The home market was at all

times likely to be more scantily supplied; the commodities were

at all times likely to be somewhat dearer there than they would

have been had the exportation been rendered as free as the

importation。

     By the above…mentioned statute; gum senega; or gum arabic;

being among the enumerated dyeing drugs; might be imported duty

free。 They were subjected; indeed; to a small poundage duty;

amounting only to threepence in the hundredweight upon their

re…exportation。 France enjoyed; at that time; an exclusive trade

to the country most productive of those drugs; that which lies in

the neighbourhood of the Senegal; and the British market could

not easily be supplied by the immediate importation of them from

the place of growth。 By the 25th George II; therefore; gum senega

was allowed to be imported (contrary to the general dispositions

of the Act of Navigation) from any part of Europe。 As the law;

however; did not mean to encourage this species of trade; so

contrary to the general principles of the mercantile policy of

England; it imposed a duty of ten shillings the hundredweight

upon such importation; and no part of this duty was to be

afterwards drawn back upon its exportation。 The successful war

which began in 1755 gave Great Britain the same exclusive trade

to those countries which France had enjoyed before。 Our

manufacturers; as soon as the peace was made; endeavoured to

avail themselves of this advantage; and to establish a monopoly

in their own favour both against the growers and against the

importers of this commodity。 By the 5th George III; therefore; c。

37; the exportation of gum senega from his Majesty's dominions in

Africa was confined to Great Britain; and was subjected to all

the same restrictions; regulations; forfeitures; and penalties as

that of the enumerated commodities of the British colonies in

America and the West Indies。 Its importation; indeed; was

subjected to a small duty of sixpence the hundredweight; but its

re…exportation was subjected to the enormous duty of one pound

ten shillings the hundredweight。 It was the intention of our

manufacturers that the whole produce of those countries should be

imported into Great Britain; and; in order that they themselves

might be enabled to buy it at their own price; that no part of it

should be exported again but at such an expense as would

sufficiently discourage that exportation。 Their avidity; however;

upon this; as well as upon many other occasions; disappointed

itself of its object。 This enormous duty presented such a

temptation to smuggling that great quantities of this commodity

were clandestinely exported; probably to all the manufacturing

countries of Europe; put particularly to Holland; not only from

Great Britain but from Africa。 Upon this account; by the 14th

George III; c。 10; this duty upon exportation was reduced to five

shillings the hundredweight。

     In the book of rates; according to which the Old Subsidy was

levied; beaver skins were estimated at six shillings and

eightpence a piece; and the different subsidies and imposts;

which before the year 1722 had been laid upon their importation;

amounted to one…fifth part of the rate; or to sixteenpence upon

each skin; all of which; except half the Old Subsidy; amounting

only to twopence; was drawn back upon exportation。 This duty upon

the importation of so important a material of manufacture had

been thought too high; and in the year 1722 the rate was reduced

to two shillings and sixpence; which reduced the duty upon

importation to sixpence; and of this only one half was to be

drawn back upon exportation。 The same successful war put the

country most productive of beaver under the dominion of Great

Britain; and beaver skins being among the enumerated commodities;

their exportation from America was consequently confined to the

market of Great Britain。 Our manufacturers soon bethought

themselves of the advantage which they might make of this

circumstance; and in the year 1764 the duty upon the importation

of beaver…skin was reduced to one penny; but the duty upon

exportation was raised to sevenpence each skin; without any

drawback of the duty upon importation。 By the same law; a duty of

eighteenpence the pound was imposed upon the exportation of

beaverwool or wombs; without making any alteration in the duty

upon the importation of that commodity; which; when imported by

Britain and in British shipping; amounted at that time to between

fourpence and fivepence the piece。

     Coals may be considered both as a material of manufacture

and as an instrument of trade。 Heavy duties; accordingly; have

been imposed upon their exportation; amounting at present (1783)

to more than five shillings the ton; or to more than fifteen

shillings the chaldron; Newcastle measures; which is in most

cases more than the original value of the commodity at the coal

pit; or even at the shipping port for exportation。

     The expo

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