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dispersed　through　all　the　different　corners　of　the　country；

cannot；　without　great　difficulty；　combine　together　for　the

purpose　either　of　imposing　monopolies　upon　their　fellow　citizens；

or　of　exempting　themselves　from　such　as　may　have　been　imposed

upon　them　by　other　people。　Manufacturers　of　all　kinds；　collected

together　in　numerous　bodies　in　all　great　cities；　easily　can。　Even

the　horns　of　cattle　are　prohibited　to　be　exported；　and　the　two

insignificant　trades　of　the　horner　and　combmaker　enjoy；　in　this

respect；　a　monopoly　against　the　graziers。

　　　　　Restraints；　either　by　prohibitions　or　by　taxes；　upon　the

exportation　of　goods　which　are　partially；　but　not　completely

manufactured；　are　not　peculiar　to　the　manufacture　of　leather。　As

long　as　anything　remains　to　be　done；　in　order　to　fit　any

commodity　for　immediate　use　and　consumption；　our　manufacturers

think　that　they　themselves　ought　to　have　the　doing　of　it。　Woolen

yarn　and　worsted　are　prohibited　to　be　exported　under　the　same

penalties　as　wool。　Even　white　cloths　are　subject　to　a　duty　upon

exportation；　and　our　dyers　have　so　far　obtained　a　monopoly

against　our　clothiers。　Our　clothiers　would　probably　have　been

able　to　defend　themselves　against　it；　but　it　happens　that　the

greater　part　of　our　principal　clothiers　are　themselves　likewise

dyers。　Watch…cases；　clockcases；　and　dial…plates　for　clocks　and

watches　have　been　prohibited　to　be　exported。　Our　clock…makers　and

watch…makers　are；　it　seems；　unwilling　that　the　price　of　this　sort

of　workmanship　should　be　raised　upon　them　by　the　competition　of

foreigners。

　　　　　By　some　old　statutes　of　Edward　M；　Henry　VIII；　and　Edward　VI；

the　exportation　of　all　metals　was　prohibited。　Lead　and　tin　were

alone　excepted　probably　on　account　of　the　great　abundance　of

those　metals；　in　the　exportation　of　which　a　considerable　part　of

the　trade　of　the　kingdom　in　those　days　consisted。　For　the

encouragement　of　the　mining　trade；　the　5th　of　William　and　Mary；

c。　17；　exempted　from　the　prohibition　iron；　copper；　and　mundic

metal　made　from　British　ore。　The　exportation　of　all　sorts　of

copper　bars；　foreign　as　well　as　British；　was　afterwards　permitted

by　the　9th　and　10th　of　William　III；　c。　26。　The　exportation　of

unmanufactured　brass；　of　what　is　called　gun…metal；　bell…metal；

and　shroff…metal；　still　continues　to　be　prohibited。　Brass

manufactures　of　all　sorts　may　be　exported　duty　free。

　　　　　The　exportation　of　the　materials　of　manufacture；　where　it　is

not　altogether　prohibited；　is　in　many　cases　subjected　to

considerable　duties。

　　　　　By　the　8th　George　I；　c。　15；　the　exportation　of　all　goods；

the　produce　or　manufacture　of　Great　Britain；　upon　which　any

duties　had　been　imposed　by　former　statutes；　was　rendered　duty

free。　The　following　goods；　however；　were　excepted：　alum；　lead；

lead　ore；　tin；　tanned　leather；　copperas；　coals；　wool　cards；　white

woolen　cloths；　lapis　calaminaris；　skins　of　all　sorts；　glue；　coney

hair　or　wool；　hares'　wool；　hair　of　all　sorts；　horses；　and

litharge　of　lead。　If　you　expect　horses；　all　these　are　either

materials　of　manufacture；　or　incomplete　manufactures　（which　may

be　considered　as　materials　for　still　further　manufacture）；　or

instruments　of　trade。　This　statute　leaves　them　subject　to　all　the

old　duties　which　had　ever　been　imposed　upon　them；　the　old　subsidy

and　one　per　cent　outwards。

　　　　　By　the　same　statute　a　great　number　of　foreign　drugs　for

dyers'　use　are　exempted　from　all　duties　upon　importation。　Each　of

them；　however；　is　afterwards　subjected　to　a　certain　duty；　not

indeed　a　very　heavy　one；　upon　exportation。　Our　dyers；　it　seems；

while　they　thought　it　for　their　interest　to　encourage　the

importation　of　those　drugs；　by　an　exemption　from　all　duties；

thought　it　likewise　for　their　interest　to　throw　some　small

discouragement　upon　their　exportation。　The　avidity；　however；

which　suggested　this　notable　piece　of　mercantile　ingenuity；　most

probably　disappointed　itself　of　its　object。　It　necessarily　taught

the　importers　to　be　more　careful　than　they　might　otherwise　have

been　that　their　importation　should　not　exceed　what　was　necessary

for　the　supply　of　the　home　market。　The　home　market　was　at　all

times　likely　to　be　more　scantily　supplied；　the　commodities　were

at　all　times　likely　to　be　somewhat　dearer　there　than　they　would

have　been　had　the　exportation　been　rendered　as　free　as　the

importation。

　　　　　By　the　above…mentioned　statute；　gum　senega；　or　gum　arabic；

being　among　the　enumerated　dyeing　drugs；　might　be　imported　duty

free。　They　were　subjected；　indeed；　to　a　small　poundage　duty；

amounting　only　to　threepence　in　the　hundredweight　upon　their

re…exportation。　France　enjoyed；　at　that　time；　an　exclusive　trade

to　the　country　most　productive　of　those　drugs；　that　which　lies　in

the　neighbourhood　of　the　Senegal；　and　the　British　market　could

not　easily　be　supplied　by　the　immediate　importation　of　them　from

the　place　of　growth。　By　the　25th　George　II；　therefore；　gum　senega

was　allowed　to　be　imported　（contrary　to　the　general　dispositions

of　the　Act　of　Navigation）　from　any　part　of　Europe。　As　the　law；

however；　did　not　mean　to　encourage　this　species　of　trade；　so

contrary　to　the　general　principles　of　the　mercantile　policy　of

England；　it　imposed　a　duty　of　ten　shillings　the　hundredweight

upon　such　importation；　and　no　part　of　this　duty　was　to　be

afterwards　drawn　back　upon　its　exportation。　The　successful　war

which　began　in　1755　gave　Great　Britain　the　same　exclusive　trade

to　those　countries　which　France　had　enjoyed　before。　Our

manufacturers；　as　soon　as　the　peace　was　made；　endeavoured　to

avail　themselves　of　this　advantage；　and　to　establish　a　monopoly

in　their　own　favour　both　against　the　growers　and　against　the

importers　of　this　commodity。　By　the　5th　George　III；　therefore；　c。

37；　the　exportation　of　gum　senega　from　his　Majesty's　dominions　in

Africa　was　confined　to　Great　Britain；　and　was　subjected　to　all

the　same　restrictions；　regulations；　forfeitures；　and　penalties　as

that　of　the　enumerated　commodities　of　the　British　colonies　in

America　and　the　West　Indies。　Its　importation；　indeed；　was

subjected　to　a　small　duty　of　sixpence　the　hundredweight；　but　its

re…exportation　was　subjected　to　the　enormous　duty　of　one　pound

ten　shillings　the　hundredweight。　It　was　the　intention　of　our

manufacturers　that　the　whole　produce　of　those　countries　should　be

imported　into　Great　Britain；　and；　in　order　that　they　themselves

might　be　enabled　to　buy　it　at　their　own　price；　that　no　part　of　it

should　be　exported　again　but　at　such　an　expense　as　would

sufficiently　discourage　that　exportation。　Their　avidity；　however；

upon　this；　as　well　as　upon　many　other　occasions；　disappointed

itself　of　its　object。　This　enormous　duty　presented　such　a

temptation　to　smuggling　that　great　quantities　of　this　commodity

were　clandestinely　exported；　probably　to　all　the　manufacturing

countries　of　Europe；　put　particularly　to　Holland；　not　only　from

Great　Britain　but　from　Africa。　Upon　this　account；　by　the　14th

George　III；　c。　10；　this　duty　upon　exportation　was　reduced　to　five

shillings　the　hundredweight。

　　　　　In　the　book　of　rates；　according　to　which　the　Old　Subsidy　was

levied；　beaver　skins　were　estimated　at　six　shillings　and

eightpence　a　piece；　and　the　different　subsidies　and　imposts；

which　before　the　year　1722　had　been　laid　upon　their　importation；

amounted　to　one…fifth　part　of　the　rate；　or　to　sixteenpence　upon

each　skin；　all　of　which；　except　half　the　Old　Subsidy；　amounting

only　to　twopence；　was　drawn　back　upon　exportation。　This　duty　upon

the　importation　of　so　important　a　material　of　manufacture　had

been　thought　too　high；　and　in　the　year　1722　the　rate　was　reduced

to　two　shillings　and　sixpence；　which　reduced　the　duty　upon

importation　to　sixpence；　and　of　this　only　one　half　was　to　be

drawn　back　upon　exportation。　The　same　successful　war　put　the

country　most　productive　of　beaver　under　the　dominion　of　Great

Britain；　and　beaver　skins　being　among　the　enumerated　commodities；

their　exportation　from　America　was　consequently　confined　to　the

market　of　Great　Britain。　Our　manufacturers　soon　bethought

themselves　of　the　advantage　which　they　might　make　of　this

circumstance；　and　in　the　year　1764　the　duty　upon　the　importation

of　beaver…skin　was　reduced　to　one　penny；　but　the　duty　upon

exportation　was　raised　to　sevenpence　each　skin；　without　any

drawback　of　the　duty　upon　importation。　By　the　same　law；　a　duty　of

eighteenpence　the　pound　was　imposed　upon　the　exportation　of

beaverwool　or　wombs；　without　making　any　alteration　in　the　duty

upon　the　importation　of　that　commodity；　which；　when　imported　by

Britain　and　in　British　shipping；　amounted　at　that　time　to　between

fourpence　and　fivepence　the　piece。

　　　　　Coals　may　be　considered　both　as　a　material　of　manufacture

and　as　an　instrument　of　trade。　Heavy　duties；　accordingly；　have

been　imposed　upon　their　exportation；　amounting　at　present　（1783）

to　more　than　five　shillings　the　ton；　or　to　more　than　fifteen

shillings　the　chaldron；　Newcastle　measures；　which　is　in　most

cases　more　than　the　original　value　of　the　commodity　at　the　coal

pit；　or　even　at　the　shipping　port　for　exportation。

　　　　　The　expo