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force which; by inspiring mutual fear; can alone overawe the

injustice of independent nations into some sort of respect for

the rights of one another。 But nothing seems more likely to

establish this equality of force than that mutual communication

of knowledge and of all sorts of improvements which an extensive

commerce from all countries to all countries naturally; or rather

necessarily; carries along with it。

     In the meantime one of the principal effects of those

discoveries has been to raise the mercantile system to a degree

of splendour and glory which it could never otherwise have

attained to。 It is the object of that system to enrich a great

nation rather by trade and manufactures than by the improvement

and cultivation of land; rather by the industry of the towns than

by that of the country。 But; in consequence of those discoveries;

the commercial towns of Europe; instead of being the

manufacturers and carriers for but a very small part of the world

(that part of Europe which is washed by the Atlantic Ocean; and

the countries which lie round the Baltic and Mediterranean seas);

have now become the manufacturers for the numerous and thriving

cultivators of America; and the carriers; and in some respects

the manufacturers too; for almost all the different nations of

Asia; Africa; and America。 Two new worlds have been opened to

their industry; each of them much greater and more extensive than

the old one; and the market of one of them growing still greater

and greater every day。

     The countries which possess the colonies of America; and

which trade directly to the East Indies; enjoy; indeed; the whole

show and splendour of this great commerce。 Other countries;

however; notwithstanding all the invidious restraints by which it

is meant to exclude them; frequently enjoy a greater share of the

real benefit of it。 The colonies of Spain and Portugal; for

example; give more real encouragement to the industry of other

countries than to that of Spain and Portugal。 In the single

article of linen alone the consumption of those colonies amounts;

it is said; but I do not pretend to warrant the quantity; to more

than three millions sterling a year。 But this great consumption

is almost entirely supplied by France; Flanders; Holland; and

Germany。 Spain and Portugal furnish but a small part of it。 The

capital which supplies the colonies with this great quantity of

linen is annually distributed among; and furnishes a revenue to

the inhabitants of; those other countries。 The profits of it only

are spent in Spain and Portugal; where they help to support the

sumptuous profusion of the merchants of Cadiz and Lisbon。

     Even the regulations by which each nation endeavours to

secure to itself the exclusive trade of its own colonies are

frequently more hurtful to the countries in favour of which they

are established than to those against which they are established。

The unjust oppression of the industry of other countries falls

back; if I may say so; upon the heads of the oppressors; and

crushes their industry more than it does that of those other

countries。 By those regulations for example; the merchant of

Hamburg must send the linen which he destines for the American

market to London; and he must bring back from thence the tobacco

which he destines for the German market; because he can neither

send the one directly to America nor bring back the other

directly from thence。 By this restraint he is probably obliged to

sell the one somewhat cheaper; and to sell the one somewhat

cheaper; and to buy the other somewhat dearer than he otherwise

might have done; and his profits are probably somewhat abridged

by means of it。 In this trade; however; between Hamburg and

London; he certainly receives the returns of his capital much

more quickly than he could possibly have done in the direct trade

to America; even though we should suppose; what is by no means

the case; that the payments of America were as punctual as those

of London。 In the trade; therefore; to which those regulations

confine the merchant of Hamburg; his capital can keep in constant

employment a much greater quantity of German industry than it

possibly could have done in the trade from which he is excluded。

Though the one employment; therefore; may to him perhaps be less

profitable than the other; it cannot be less advantageous to his

country。 It is quite otherwise with the employment into which the

monopoly naturally attracts; if I may say so; the capital of the

London merchant。 That employment may; perhaps; be more profitable

to him than the greater part of other employments; but; on

account of the slowness of the returns; it cannot be more

advantageous to his country。

     After all the unjust attempts; therefore; of every country

in Europe to engross to itself the whole advantage of the trade

of its own colonies; no country has yet been able to engross

itself anything but the expense of supporting in time of peace

and of defending in time of war the oppressive authority which it

assumes over them。 The inconveniencies resulting from the

possession of its colonies; every country has engrossed to itself

completely。 The advantages resulting from their trade it has been

obliged to share with many other countries。

     At first sight; no doubt; the monopoly of the great commerce

of America naturally seems to be an acquisition of the highest

value。 To the undiscerning eye of giddy ambition; it naturally

presents itself amidst the confused scramble of politics and war

as a very dazzling object to fight for。 The dazzling splendour of

the object; however; the immense greatness of the commerce; is

the very quality which renders the monopoly of it hurtful; or

which makes one employment; in its own nature necessarily less

advantageous to the country than the greater part of other

employments; absorb a much greater proportion of the capital of

the country than what would otherwise have gone to it。

     The mercantile stock of every country; it has been shown in

the second book; naturally seeks; if one may say so; the

employment most advantageous to that country。 If it is employed

in the carrying trade; the country to which it belongs becomes

the emporium of the goods of all the countries whose trade that

stock carries on。 But the owner of that stock necessarily wishes

to dispose of as great a part of those goods as he can at home。

He thereby saves himself the trouble; risk; and expense of

exportation; and he will upon that account be glad to sell them

at home; not only for a much smaller price; but with somewhat a

smaller profit than he might expect to make by sending them

abroad。 He naturally; therefore; endeavours as much as he can to

turn his carrying trade into a foreign trade of consumption。 If

his stock; again; is employed in a foreign trade of consumption;

he will; for the same reason; be glad to dispose of at home as

great a part as he can of the home goods; which he collects in

order to export to some foreign market; and he will thus

endeavour; as much as he can; to turn his foreign trade of

consumption into a home trade。 The mercantile stock of every

country naturally courts in this manner the near; and shuns the

distant employment; naturally courts the employment in which the

returns are frequent; and shuns that in which they are distant

and slow; naturally courts the employment in which it can

maintain the greatest quantity of productive labour in the

country to which it belongs; or in which its owner resides; and

shuns that in which it can maintain there the smallest quantity。

It naturally courts the employment which in ordinary cases is

most advantageous; and shuns that which in ordinary cases is

least advantageous to that country。

     But if in any of those distant employments; which in

ordinary cases are less advantageous to the country; the profit

should happen to rise somewhat higher than what is sufficient to

balance the natural preference which is given to nearer

employments; this superiority of profit will draw stock from

those nearer employments; till the profits of all return to their

proper level。 This superiority of profit; however; is a proof

that; in the actual circumstances of the society; those distant

employments are somewhat understocked in proportion to other

employments; and that the stock of the society is not distributed

in the properest manner among all the different employments

carried on in it。 It is a proof that something is either bought

cheaper or sold dearer than it ought to be; and that some

particular class of citizens is more or less oppressed either by

paying more or by getting less than what is suitable to that

equality which ought to take place; and which naturally does take

place among all the different classes of them。 Though the same

capital never will maintain the same quantity of productive

labour in a distant as in a near employment; yet a distant

employment may be as necessary for the welfare of the society as

a near one; the goods which the distant employment deals i

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