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times; generally worth more than two pounds of the best white

bread; and in plentiful years it is sometimes worth three or four

pounds。

     It is thus that in the progress of improvement the rent and

profit of unimproved pasture come to be regulated in some measure

by the rent and profit of what is improved; and these again by

the rent and profit of corn。 Corn is an annual crop。 Butcher's

meat; a crop which requires four or five years to grow。 As an

acre of land; therefore; will produce a much smaller quantity of

the one species of food than of the other; the inferiority of the

quantity must be compensated by the superiority of the price。 If

it was more than compensated; more corn land would be turned into

pasture; and if it was not compensated; part of what was in

pasture would be brought back into corn。

     This equality; however; between the rent and profit of grass

and those of corn; of the land of which the immediate produce is

food for cattle; and of that of which the immediate produce is

food for men; must be understood to take place only through the

greater part of the improved lands of a great country。 In some

particular local situations it is quite otherwise; and the rent

and profit of grass are much superior to what can be made by

corn。

     Thus in the neighbourhood of a great town the demand for

milk and for forage to horses frequently contribute; together

with the high price of butcher's meat; to raise the value of

grass above what may be called its natural proportion to that of

corn。 This local advantage; it is evident; cannot be communicated

to the lands at a distance。

     Particular circumstances have sometimes rendered some

countries so populous that the whole territory; like the lands in

the neighbourhood of a great town; has not been sufficient to

produce both the grass and the corn necessary for the subsistence

of their inhabitants。 Their lands; therefore; have been

principally employed in the production of grass; the more bulky

commodity; and which cannot be so easily brought from a great

distance; and corn; the food of the great body of the people; has

been chiefly imported from foreign countries。 Holland is at

present in this situation; and a considerable part of ancient

Italy seems to have been so during the prosperity of the Romans。

To feed well; old Cato said; as we are told by Cicero; was the

first and most profitable thing in the management of a private

estate; to feed tolerably well; the second; and to feed ill; the

third。 To plough; he ranked only in the fourth place of profit

and advantage。 Tillage; indeed; in that part of ancient Italy

which lay in the neighbourhood of Rome; must have been very much

discouraged by the distributions of corn which were frequently

made to the people; either gratuitously; or at a very low price。

This corn was brought from the conquered provinces; of which

several; instead of taxes; were obliged to furnish a tenth part

of their produce at a stated price; about sixpence a peck; to the

republic。 The low price at which this corn was distributed to the

people must necessarily have sunk the price of what could be

brought to the Roman market from Latium; or the ancient territory

of Rome; and must have discouraged its cultivation in that

country。

     In an open country too; of which the principal produce is

corn; a well…enclosed piece of grass will frequently rent higher

than any corn field in its neighbourhood。 It is convenient for

the maintenance of the cattle employed in the cultivation of the

corn; and its high rent is; in this case; not so properly paid

from the value of its own produce as from that of the corn lands

which are cultivated by means of it。 It is likely to fall; if

ever the neighbouring lands are completely enclosed。 The present

high rent of enclosed land in Scotland seems owing to the

scarcity of enclosure; and will probably last no longer than that

scarcity。 The advantage of enclosure is greater for pasture than

for corn。 It saves the labour of guarding the cattle; which feed

better; too; when they are not liable to be disturbed by their

keeper or his dog。

     But where there is no local advantage of this kind; the rent

and profit of corn; or whatever else is the common vegetable food

or the people; must naturally regulate; upon the land which is

fit for producing it; the rent and profit of pasture。

     The use of the artificial grasses; of turnips; carrots;

cabbages; and the other expedients which have been fallen upon to

make an equal quantity of land feed a greater number of cattle

than when in natural grass; should somewhat reduce; it might be

expected; the superiority which; in an improved country; the

price of butcher's meat naturally has over that of bread。 It

seems accordingly to have done so; and there is some reason for

believing that; at least in the London market; the price of

butcher's meat in proportion to the price of bread is a good deal

lower in the present times than it was in the beginning of the

last century。

     In the appendix to the Life of Prince Henry; Doctor Birch

has given us an account of the prices of butcher's meat as

commonly paid by that prince。 It is there said that the four

quarters of an ox weighing six hundred pounds usually cost him

nine pounds ten shillings; or thereabouts; that is; thirty…one

shillings and eightpence per hundred pounds weight。 Prince Henry

died on the 6th of November 1612; in the nineteenth year of his

age。

     In March 1764; there was a Parliamentary inquiry into the

causes of the high price of provisions at that time。 It was then;

among other proof to the same purpose; given in evidence by a

Virginia merchant; that in March 1763; he had victualled his

ships for twenty…four or twenty…five shillings the hundredweight

of beef; which he considered as the ordinary price; whereas; in

that dear year; he had paid twenty…seven shillings for the same

weight and sort。 This high price in 1764 is; however; four

shillings and eightpence cheaper than the ordinary price paid by

Prince Henry; and it is the best beef only; it must be observed;

which is fit to be salted for those distant voyages。

     The price paid by Prince Henry amounts to 3 3/4d。 per pound

weight of the whole carcase; coarse and choice pieces taken

together; and at that rate the choice pieces could not have been

sold by retail for less than 4 1/2d。 or 5d。 the pound。

     In the Parliamentary inquiry in 1764; the witnesses stated

the price of the choice pieces of the best beef to be to the

consumer 4d。 and 4 1/4d。 the pound; and the coarse pieces in

general to be from seven farthings to 2 1/2d。 and this they said

was in general one halfpenny dearer than the same sort of pieces

had usually been sold in the month of March。 But even this high

price is still a good deal cheaper than what we can well suppose

the ordinary retail price to have been the time of Prince Henry。

     During the twelve first years of the last century; the

average price of the best wheat at the Windsor market was L1 18s。

3 1/6d。 the quarter of nine Winchester bushels。

     But in the twelve years preceding 1764; including that year;

the average price of the same measure of the best wheat at the

same market was L2 1s。 9 1/2d。

     In the twelve first years of the last century; therefore;

wheat appears to have been a good deal cheaper; and butcher's

meat a good deal dearer; than in the twelve years preceding 1764;

including that year。

     In all great countries the greater part of the cultivated

lands are employed in producing either food for men or food for

cattle。 The rent and profit of these regulate the rent and profit

of all other cultivated land。 If any particular produce afforded

less; the land would soon be turned into corn or pasture; and if

any afforded more; some part of the lands in corn or pasture

would soon be turned to that produce。

     Those productions; indeed; which require either a greater

original expense of improvement; or a greater annual expense of

cultivation; in order to fit the land for them; appear commonly

to afford; the one a greater rent; the other a greater profit

than corn or pasture。 This superiority; however; will seldom be

found to amount to more than a reasonable interest or

compensation for this superior expense。

     In a hop garden; a fruit garden; a kitchen garden; both the

rent of the landlord; and the profit of the farmer; are generally

greater than in a corn or grass field。 But to bring the ground

into this condition requires more expense。 Hence a greater rent

becomes due to the landlord。 It requires; too; a more attentive

and skilful management。 Hence a greater profit becomes due to the

farmer。 The crop too; at least in the hop and fruit garden; is

more precarious。 Its price; therefore; besides compensating all

occasional losses; must afford something like the profit of

insurance。 The circumstances 

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