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speak　of　him。　There　is　scarce　any　common　mechanic　trade；　on　the

contrary；　of　which　all　the　operations　may　not　be　as　completely

and　distinctly　explained　in　a　pamphlet　of　a　very　few　pages；　as　it

is　possible　for　words　illustrated　by　figures　to　explain　them。　In

the　history　of　the　arts；　now　publishing　by　the　French　Academy　of

Sciences；　several　of　them　are　actually　explained　in　this　manner。

The　direction　of　operations；　besides；　which　must　be　varied　with

every　change　of　the　weather；　as　well　as　with　many　other

accidents；　requires　much　more　judgment　and　discretion　than　that

of　those　which　are　always　the　same　or　very　nearly　the　same。

　　　　　Not　only　the　art　of　the　farmer；　the　general　direction　of　the

operations　of　husbandry；　but　many　inferior　branches　of　country

labour　require　much　more　skin　and　experience　than　the　greater

part　of　mechanic　trades。　The　man　who　works　upon　brass　and　iron；

works　with　instruments　and　upon　materials　of　which　the　temper　is

always　the　same；　or　very　nearly　the　same。　But　the　man　who　ploughs

the　ground　with　a　team　of　horses　or　oxen；　works　with　instruments

of　which　the　health；　strength；　and　temper；　are　very　different

upon　different　occasions。　The　condition　of　the　materials　which　he

works　upon；　too；　is　as　variable　as　that　of　the　instruments　which

he　works　with；　and　both　require　to　be　managed　with　much　judgment

and　discretion。　The　common　ploughman；　though　generally　regarded

as　the　pattern　of　stupidity　and　ignorance；　is　seldom　defective　in

this　judgment　and　discretion。　He　is　less　accustomed；　indeed；　to

social　intercourse　than　the　mechanic　who　lives　in　a　town。　His

voice　and　language　are　more　uncouth　and　more　difficult　to　be

understood　by　those　who　are　not　used　to　them。　His　understanding；

however；　being　accustomed　to　consider　a　greater　variety　of

objects；　is　generally　much　superior　to　that　of　the　other；　whose

whole　attention　from　morning　till　night　is　commonly　occupied　in

performing　one　or　two　very　simple　operations。　How　much　the　lower

ranks　of　people　in　the　country　are　really　superior　to　those　of

the　town　is　well　known　to　every　man　whom　either　business　or

curiosity　has　led　to　converse　much　with　both。　In　China　and

Indostan　accordingly　both　the　rank　and　the　wages　of　country

labourers　are　said　to　be　superior　to　those　of　the　greater　part　of

artificers　and　manufacturers。　They　would　probably　be　so

everywhere；　if　corporation　laws　and　the　corporation　spirit　did

not　prevent　it。

　　　　　The　superiority　which　the　industry　of　the　towns　has

everywhere　in　Europe　over　that　of　the　country　is　not　altogether

owing　to　corporations　and　corporation　laws。　It　is　supported　by

many　other　regulations。　The　high　duties　upon　foreign　manufactures

and　upon　all　goods　imported　by　alien　merchants；　all　tend　to　the

same　purpose。　Corporation　laws　enable　the　inhabitants　of　towns　to

raise　their　prices；　without　fearing　to　be　undersold　by　the　free

competition　of　their　own　countrymen。　Those　other　regulations

secure　them　equally　against　that　of　foreigners。　The　enhancement

of　price　occasioned　by　both　is　everywhere　finally　paid　by　the

landlords；　farmers；　and　labourers　of　the　country；　who　have　seldom

opposed　the　establishment　of　such　monopolies。　They　have　commonly

neither　inclination　nor　fitness　to　enter　into　combinations；　and

the　clamour　and　sophistry　of　merchants　and　manufacturers　easily

persuade　them　that　the　private　interest　of　a　part；　and　of　a

subordinate　part　of　the　society；　is　the　general　interest　of　the

whole。

　　　　　In　Great　Britain　the　superiority　of　the　industry　of　the

towns　over　that　of　the　country　seems　to　have　been　greater

formerly　than　in　the　present　times。　The　wages　of　country　labour

approach　nearer　to　those　of　manufacturing　labour；　and　the　profits

of　stock　employed　in　agriculture　to　those　of　trading　and

manufacturing　stock；　than　they　are　said　to　have　done　in　the　last

century；　or　in　the　beginning　of　the　present。　This　change　may　be

regarded　as　the　necessary；　though　very　late　consequence　of　the

extraordinary　encouragement　given　to　the　industry　of　the　towns。

The　stock　accumulated　in　them　comes　in　time　to　be　so　great　that

it　can　no　longer　be　employed　with　the　ancient　profit　in　that

species　of　industry　which　is　peculiar　to　them。　That　industry　has

its　limits　like　every　other；　and　the　increase　of　stock；　by

increasing　the　competition；　necessarily　reduces　the　profit。　The

lowering　of　profit　in　the　town　forces　out　stock　to　the　country；

where；　by　creating　a　new　demand　for　country　labour；　it

necessarily　raises　its　wages。　It　then　spreads　itself；　if　I　may

say　so；　over　the　face　of　the　land；　and　by　being　employed　in

agriculture　is　in　part　restored　to　the　country；　at　the　expense　of

which；　in　a　great　measure；　it　had　originally　been　accumulated　in

the　town。　That　everywhere　in　Europe　the　greatest　improvements　of

the　country　have　been　owing　to　such　overflowings　of　the　stock

originally　accumulated　in　the　towns；　I　shall　endeavour　to　show

hereafter；　and　at　the　same　time　to　demonstrate　that；　though　some

countries　have　by　this　course　attained　to　a　considerable　degree

of　opulence；　it　is　in　itself　necessarily　slow；　uncertain；　liable

to　be　disturbed　and　interrupted　by　innumerable　accidents；　and　in

every　respect　contrary　to　the　order　of　nature　and　of　reason。　The

interests；　prejudices；　laws　and　customs；　which　have　given

occasion　to　it；　I　shall　endeavour　to　explain　as　fully　and

distinctly　as　I　can　in　the　third　and　fourth　books　of　this

Inquiry。

　　　　　People　of　the　same　trade　seldom　meet　together；　even　for

merriment　and　diversion；　but　the　conversation　ends　in　a

conspiracy　against　the　public；　or　in　some　contrivance　to　raise

prices。　It　is　impossible　indeed　to　prevent　such　meetings；　by　any

law　which　either　could　be　executed；　or　would　be　consistent　with

liberty　and　justice。　But　though　the　law　cannot　hinder　people　of

the　same　trade　from　sometimes　assembling　together；　it　ought　to　do

nothing　to　facilitate　such　assemblies；　much　less　to　render　them

necessary。

　　　　　A　regulation　which　obliges　all　those　of　the　same　trade　in　a

particular　town　to　enter　their　names　and　places　of　abode　in　a

public　register；　facilitates　such　assemblies。　It　connects

individuals　who　might　never　otherwise　be　known　to　one　another；

and　gives　every　man　of　the　trade　a　direction　where　to　find　every

other　man　of　it。

　　　　　A　regulation　which　enables　those　of　the　same　trade　to　tax

themselves　in　order　to　provide　for　their　poor；　their　sick；　their

widows　and　orphans；　by　giving　them　a　common　interest　to　manage；

renders　such　assemblies　necessary。

　　　　　An　incorporation　not　only　renders　them　necessary；　but　makes

the　act　of　the　majority　binding　upon　the　whole。　In　a　free　trade

an　effectual　combination　cannot　be　established　but　by　the

unanimous　consent　of　every　single　trader；　and　it　cannot　last

longer　than　every　single　trader　continues　of　the　same　mind。　The

majority　of　a　corporation　can　enact　a　bye…law　with　proper

penalties；　which　will　limit　the　competition　more　effectually　and

more　durably　than　any　voluntary　combination　whatever。

　　　　　The　pretence　that　corporations　are　necessary　for　the　better

government　of　the　trade　is　without　any　foundation。　The　real　and

effectual　discipline　which　is　exercised　over　a　workman　is　not

that　of　his　corporation；　but　that　of　his　customers。　It　is　the

fear　of　losing　their　employment　which　restrains　his　frauds　and

corrects　his　negligence。　An　exclusive　corporation　necessarily

weakens　the　force　of　this　discipline。　A　particular　set　of　workmen

must　then　be　employed；　let　them　behave　well　or　ill。　It　is　upon

this　account　that　in　many　large　incorporated　towns　no　tolerable

workmen　are　to　be　found；　even　in　some　of　the　most　necessary

trades。　If　you　would　have　your　work　tolerably　executed；　it　must

be　done　in　the　suburbs；　where　the　workmen；　having　no　exclusive

privilege；　have　nothing　but　their　character　to　depend　upon；　and

you　must　then　smuggle　it　into　the　town　as　well　as　you　can。

　　　　　It　is　in　this　manner　that　the　policy　of　Europe；　by

restraining　the　competition　in　some　employments　to　a　smaller

number　than　would　otherwise　be　disposed　to　enter　into　them；

occasions　a　very　important　inequality　in　the　whole　of　the

advantages　and　disadvantages　of　the　different　employments　of

labour　and　stock。

　　　　　Secondly；　the　policy　of　Europe；　by　increasing　the

competition　in　some　employments　beyond　what　it　naturally　would

be；　occasions　another　inequality　of　an　opposite　kind　in　the　whole

of　the　advantages　and　disadvantages　of　the　different　employments

of　labour　and　stock。

　　　　　It　has　been　considered　as　of　so　much　importance　that　a

proper　number　of　young　people　should　be　educated　for　certain

professions；　that　sometimes　the　public　and　sometimes　the　piety　of

private　founders　have　established　many　pensions；　scholarships；

exhibitions；　bursaries；　etc。；　for　this　purpose；　which　draw　many

more　people　into　those　trades　than　could　otherwise　pretend　to

follow　them。　In　all　Christian　countries；　I　believe；　the　education

of　the　greater　part　of