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almost　in　the　same　terms　in　which　they　are　described　by

travellers　in　the　present　times。　It　had　perhaps；　even　long　before

his　time；　acquired　that　full　complement　of　riches　which　the

nature　of　its　laws　and　institutions　permits　it　to　acquire。　The

accounts　of　all　travellers；　inconsistent　in　many　other　respects；

agree　in　the　low　wages　of　labour；　and　in　the　difficulty　which　a

labourer　finds　in　bringing　up　a　family　in　China。　If　by　digging

the　ground　a　whole　day　he　can　get　what　will　purchase　a　small

quantity　of　rice　in　the　evening；　he　is　contented。　The　condition

of　artificers　is；　if　possible；　still　worse。　Instead　of　waiting

indolently　in　their　workhouses；　for　the　calls　of　their　customers；

as　in　Europe；　they　are　continually　running　about　the　streets　with

the　tools　of　their　respective　trades；　offering　their　service；　and

as　it　were　begging　employment。　The　poverty　of　the　lower　ranks　of

people　in　China　far　surpasses　that　of　the　most　beggarly　nations

in　Europe。　In　the　neighbourhood　of　Canton　many　hundred；　it　is

commonly　said；　many　thousand　families　have　no　habitation　on　the

land；　but　live　constantly　in　little　fishing　boats　upon　the　rivers

and　canals。　The　subsistence　which　they　find　there　is　so　scanty

that　they　are　eager　to　fish　up　the　nastiest　garbage　thrown

overboard　from　any　European　ship。　Any　carrion；　the　carcase　of　a

dead　dog　or　cat；　for　example；　though　half　putrid　and　stinking；　is

as　welcome　to　them　as　the　most　wholesome　food　to　the　people　of

other　countries。　Marriage　is　encouraged　in　China；　not　by　the

profitableness　of　children；　but　by　the　liberty　of　destroying

them。　In　all　great　towns　several　are　every　night　exposed　in　the

street；　or　drowned　like　puppies　in　the　water。　The　performance　of

this　horrid　office　is　even　said　to　be　the　avowed　business　by

which　some　people　earn　their　subsistence。

　　　　　China；　however；　though　it　may　perhaps　stand　still；　does　not

seem　to　go　backwards。　Its　towns　are　nowhere　deserted　by　their

inhabitants。　The　lands　which　had　once　been　cultivated　are　nowhere

neglected。　The　same　or　very　nearly　the　same　annual　labour　must

therefore　continue　to　be　performed；　and　the　funds　destined　for

maintaining　it　must　not；　consequently；　be　sensibly　diminished。

The　lowest　class　of　labourers；　therefore；　notwithstanding　their

scanty　subsistence；　must　some　way　or　another　make　shift　to

continue　their　race　so　far　as　to　keep　up　their　usual　numbers。

　　　　　But　it　would　be　otherwise　in　a　country　where　the　funds

destined　for　the　maintenance　of　labour　were　sensibly　decaying。

Every　year　the　demand　for　servants　and　labourers　would；　in　all

the　different　classes　of　employments；　be　less　than　it　had　been

the　year　before。　Many　who　had　been　bred　in　the　superior　classes；

not　being　able　to　find　employment　in　their　own　business；　would　be

glad　to　seek　it　in　the　lowest。　The　lowest　class　being　not　only

overstocked　with　its　own　workmen；　but　with　the　overflowings　of

all　the　other　classes；　the　competition　for　employment　would　be　so

great　in　it；　as　to　reduce　the　wages　of　labour　to　the　most

miserable　and　scanty　subsistence　of　the　labourer。　Many　would　not

be　able　to　find　employment　even　upon　these　hard　terms；　but　would

either　starve；　or　be　driven　to　seek　a　subsistence　either　by

begging；　or　by　the　perpetration　perhaps　of　the　greatest

enormities。　Want；　famine；　and　mortality　would　immediately　prevail

in　that　class；　and　from　thence　extend　themselves　to　all　the

superior　classes；　till　the　number　of　inhabitants　in　the　country

was　reduced　to　what　could　easily　be　maintained　by　the　revenue　and

stock　which　remained　in　it；　and　which　had　escaped　either　the

tyranny　or　calamity　which　had　destroyed　the　rest。　This　perhaps　is

nearly　the　present　state　of　Bengal；　and　of　some　other　of　the

English　settlements　in　the　East　Indies。　In　a　fertile　country

which　had　before　been　much　depopulated；　where　subsistence；

consequently；　should　not　be　very　difficult；　and　where；

notwithstanding；　three　or　four　hundred　thousand　people　die　of

hunger　in　one　year；　we　may　be　assured　that　the　funds　destined　for

the　maintenance　of　the　labouring　poor　are　fast　decaying。　The

difference　between　the　genius　of　the　British　constitution　which

protects　and　governs　North　America；　and　that　of　the　mercantile

company　which　oppresses　and　domineers　in　the　East　Indies；　cannot

perhaps　be　better　illustrated　than　by　the　different　state　of

those　countries。

　　　　　The　liberal　reward　of　labour；　therefore；　as　it　is　the

necessary　effect；　so　it　is　the　natural　symptom　of　increasing

national　wealth。　The　scanty　maintenance　of　the　labouring　poor；　on

the　other　hand；　is　the　natural　symptom　that　things　are　at　a

stand；　and　their　starving　condition　that　they　are　going　fast

backwards。

　　　　　In　Great　Britain　the　wages　of　labour　seem；　in　the　present

times；　to　be　evidently　more　than　what　is　precisely　necessary　to

enable　the　labourer　to　bring　up　a　family。　In　order　to　satisfy

ourselves　upon　this　point　it　will　not　be　necessary　to　enter　into

any　tedious　or　doubtful　calculation　of　what　may　be　the　lowest　sum

upon　which　it　is　possible　to　do　this。　There　are　many　plain

symptoms　that　the　wages　of　labour　are　nowhere　in　this　country

regulated　by　this　lowest　rate　which　is　consistent　with　common

humanity。

　　　　　First；　in　almost　every　part　of　Great　Britain　there　is　a

distinction；　even　in　the　lowest　species　of　labour；　between　summer

and　winter　wages。　Summer　wages　are　always　highest。　But　on　account

of　the　extraordinary　expense　of　fuel；　the　maintenance　of　a　family

is　most　expensive　in　winter。　Wages；　therefore；　being　highest　when

this　expense　is　lowest；　it　seems　evident　that　they　are　not

regulated　by　what　is　necessary　for　this　expense；　but　by　the

quantity　and　supposed　value　of　the　work。　A　labourer；　it　may　be

said　indeed；　ought　to　save　part　of　his　summer　wages　in　order　to

defray　his　winter　expense；　and　that　through　the　whole　year　they

do　not　exceed　what　is　necessary　to　maintain　his　family　through

the　whole　year。　A　slave；　however；　or　one　absolutely　dependent　on

us　for　immediate　subsistence；　would　not　be　treated　in　this

manner。　His　daily　subsistence　would　be　proportioned　to　his　daily

necessities。

　　　　　Secondly；　the　wages　of　labour　do　not　in　Great　Britain

fluctuate　with　the　price　of　provisions。　These　vary　everywhere

from　year　to　year；　frequently　from　month　to　month。　But　in　many

places　the　money　price　of　labour　remains　uniformly　the　same

sometimes　for　half　a　century　together。　If　in　these　places；

therefore；　the　labouring　poor　can　maintain　their　families　in　dear

years；　they　must　be　at　their　ease　in　times　of　moderate　plenty；

and　in　affluence　in　those　of　extraordinary　cheapness。　The　high

price　of　provisions　during　these　ten　years　past　has　not　in　many

parts　of　the　kingdom　been　accompanied　with　any　sensible　rise　in

the　money　price　of　labour。　It　has；　indeed；　in　some；　owing

probably　more　to　the　increase　of　the　demand　for　labour　than　to

that　of　the　price　of　provisions。

　　　　　Thirdly；　as　the　price　of　provisions　varies　more　from　year　to

year　than　the　wages　of　labour；　so；　on　the　other　hand；　the　wages

of　labour　vary　more　from　place　to　place　than　the　price　of

provisions。　The　prices　of　bread　and　butcher's　meat　are　generally

the　same　or　very　nearly　the　same　through　the　greater　part　of　the

United　Kingdom。　These　and　most　other　things　which　are　sold　by

retail；　the　way　in　which　the　labouring　poor　buy　all　things；　are

generally　fully　as　cheap　or　cheaper　in　great　towns　than　in　the

remoter　parts　of　the　country；　for　reasons　which　I　shall　have

occasion　to　explain　hereafter。　But　the　wages　of　labour　in　a　great

town　and　its　neighbourhood　are　frequently　a　fourth　or　a　fifth

part；　twenty　or　five…and…twenty　per　cent　higher　than　at　a　few

miles　distance。　Eighteenpence　a　day　may　be　reckoned　the　common

price　of　labour　in　London　and　its　neighbourhood。　At　a　few　miles

distance　it　falls　to　fourteen　and　fifteenpence。　Tenpence　may　be

reckoned　its　price　in　Edinburgh　and　its　neighbourhood。　At　a　few

miles　distance　it　falls　to　eightpence；　the　usual　price　of　common

labour　through　the　greater　part　of　the　low　country　of　Scotland；

where　it　varies　a　good　deal　less　than　in　England。　Such　a

difference　of　prices；　which　it　seems　is　not　always　sufficient　to

transport　a　man　from　one　parish　to　another；　would　necessarily

occasion　so　great　a　transportation　of　the　most　bulky　commodities；

not　only　from　one　parish　to　another；　but　from　one　end　of　the

kingdom；　almost　from　one　end　of　the　world　to　the　other；　as　would

soon　reduce　them　more　nearly　to　a　level。　After　all　that　has　been

said　of　the　levity　and　inconstancy　of　human　nature；　it　appears

evidently　from　experience　that　a　man　is　of　all　sorts　of　luggage

the　most　difficult　to　be　transported。　If　the　labouring　poor；

therefore；　can　maintain　their　families　in　those　parts　of　the

kingdom　where　the　price　of　labour　is　lowest；　they　must　be　in

affluence　where　it　is　highest。

　　　　　Fourthly；　the　variations　in　the　price　of　labour　not　only　do

not　correspond　either　in　place　or　time　with　thos