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AN　INQUIRY　INTO　THE　NATURE　AND　CAUSES　OF　THE　WEALTH　OF　NATIONS



by　Adam　Smith　



1776







　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　INTRODUCTION　AND　PLAN　OF　THE　WORK　





　　　　　THE　annual　labour　of　every　nation　is　the　fund　which

originally　supplies　it　with　all　the　necessaries　and　conveniences

of　life　which　it　annually　consumes；　and　which　consist　always

either　in　the　immediate　produce　of　that　labour；　or　in　what　is

purchased　with　that　produce　from　other　nations。

　　　　　According　therefore　as　this　produce；　or　what　is　purchased

with　it；　bears　a　greater　or　smaller　proportion　to　the　number　of

those　who　are　to　consume　it；　the　nation　will　be　better　or　worse

supplied　with　all　the　necessaries　and　conveniences　for　which　it

has　occasion。

　　　　　But　this　proportion　must　in　every　nation　be　regulated　by　two

different　circumstances；　first；　by　the　skill；　dexterity；　and

judgment　with　which　its　labour　is　generally　applied；　and；

secondly；　by　the　proportion　between　the　number　of　those　who　are

employed　in　useful　labour；　and　that　of　those　who　are　not　so

employed。　Whatever　be　the　soil；　climate；　or　extent　of　territory

of　any　particular　nation；　the　abundance　or　scantiness　of　its

annual　supply　must；　in　that　particular　situation；　depend　upon

those　two　circumstances。

　　　　　The　abundance　or　scantiness　of　this　supply；　too；　seems　to

depend　more　upon　the　former　of　those　two　circumstances　than　upon

the　latter。　Among　the　savage　nations　of　hunters　and　fishers；

every　individual　who　is　able　to　work；　is　more　or　less　employed　in

useful　labour；　and　endeavours　to　provide；　as　well　as　he　can；　the

necessaries　and　conveniences　of　life；　for　himself；　or　such　of　his

family　or　tribe　as　are　either　too　old；　or　too　young；　or　too

infirm　to　go　a　hunting　and　fishing。　Such　nations；　however；　are　so

miserably　poor　that；　from　mere　want；　they　are　frequently　reduced；

or；　at　least；　think　themselves　reduced；　to　the　necessity

sometimes　of　directly　destroying；　and　sometimes　of　abandoning

their　infants；　their　old　people；　and　those　afflicted　with

lingering　diseases；　to　perish　with　hunger；　or　to　be　devoured　by

wild　beasts。　Among　civilised　and　thriving　nations；　on　the

contrary；　though　a　great　number　of　people　do　not　labour　at　all；

many　of　whom　consume　the　produce　of　ten　times；　frequently　of　a

hundred　times　more　labour　than　the　greater　part　of　those　who

work；　yet　the　produce　of　the　whole　labour　of　the　society　is　so

great　that　all　are　often　abundantly　supplied；　and　a　workman；　even

of　the　lowest　and　poorest　order；　if　he　is　frugal　and　industrious；

may　enjoy　a　greater　share　of　the　necessaries　and　conveniences　of

life　than　it　is　possible　for　any　savage　to　acquire。

　　　　　The　causes　of　this　improvement；　in　the　productive　powers　of

labour；　and　the　order；　according　to　which　its　produce　is

naturally　distributed　among　the　different　ranks　and　conditions　of

men　in　the　society；　make　the　subject　of　the　first　book　of　this

Inquiry。

　　　　　Whatever　be　the　actual　state　of　the　skill；　dexterity；　and

judgment　with　which　labour　is　applied　in　any　nation；　the

abundance　or　scantiness　of　its　annual　supply　must　depend；　during

the　continuance　of　that　state；　upon　the　proportion　between　the

number　of　those　who　are　annually　employed　in　useful　labour；　and

that　of　those　who　are　not　so　employed。　The　number　of　useful　and

productive　labourers；　it　will　hereafter　appear；　is　everywhere　in

proportion　to　the　quantity　of　capital　stock　which　is　employed　in

setting　them　to　work；　and　to　the　particular　way　in　which　it　is　so

employed。　The　second　book；　therefore；　treats　of　the　nature　of

capital　stock；　of　the　manner　in　which　it　is　gradually

accumulated；　and　of　the　different　quantities　of　labour　which　it

puts　into　motion；　according　to　the　different　ways　in　which　it　is

employed。

　　　　　Nations　tolerably　well　advanced　as　to　skill；　dexterity；　and

judgment；　in　the　application　of　labour；　have　followed　very

different　plans　in　the　general　conduct　or　direction　of　it；　those

plans　have　not　all　been　equally　favourable　to　the　greatness　of

its　produce。　The　policy　of　some　nations　has　given　extraordinary

encouragement　to　the　industry　of　the　country；　that　of　others　to

the　industry　of　towns。　Scarce　any　nation　has　dealt　equally　and

impartially　with　every　sort　of　industry。　Since　the　downfall　of

the　Roman　empire；　the　policy　of　Europe　has　been　more　favourable

to　arts；　manufactures；　and　commerce；　the　industry　of　towns；　than

to　agriculture；　the　industry　of　the　country。　The　circumstances

which　seem　to　have　introduced　and　established　this　policy　are

explained　in　the　third　book。

　　　　　Though　those　different　plans　were；　perhaps；　first　introduced

by　the　private　interests　and　prejudices　of　particular　orders　of

men；　without　any　regard　to；　or　foresight　of；　their　consequences

upon　the　general　welfare　of　the　society；　yet　they　have　given

occasion　to　very　different　theories　of　political　economy；　of

which　some　magnify　the　importance　of　that　industry　which　is

carried　on　in　towns；　others　of　that　which　is　carried　on　in　the

country。　Those　theories　have　had　a　considerable　influence；　not

only　upon　the　opinions　of　men　of　learning；　but　upon　the　public

conduct　of　princes　and　sovereign　states。　I　have　endeavoured；　in

the　fourth　book；　to　explain；　as　fully　and　distinctly　as　I　can；

those　different　theories；　and　the　principal　effects　which　they

have　produced　in　different　ages　and　nations。

　　　　　To　explain　in　what　has　consisted　the　revenue　of　the　great

body　of　the　people；　or　what　has　been　the　nature　of　those　funds

which；　in　different　ages　and　nations；　have　supplied　their　annual

consumption；　is　the　object　of　these　four　first　books。　The　fifth

and　last　book　treats　of　the　revenue　of　the　sovereign；　or

commonwealth。　In　this　book　I　have　endeavoured　to　show；　first；

what　are　the　necessary　expenses　of　the　sovereign；　or

commonwealth；　which　of　those　expenses　ought　to　be　defrayed　by　the

general　contribution　of　the　whole　society；　and　which　of　them　by

that　of　some　particular　part　only；　or　of　some　particular　members

of　it：　secondly；　what　are　the　different　methods　in　which　the

whole　society　may　be　made　to　contribute　towards　defraying　the

expenses　incumbent　on　the　whole　society；　and　what　are　the

principal　advantages　and　inconveniences　of　each　of　those　methods：

and；　thirdly　and　lastly；　what　are　the　reasons　and　causes　which

have　induced　almost　all　modern　governments　to　mortgage　some　part

of　this　revenue；　or　to　contract　debts；　and　what　have　been　the

effects　of　those　debts　upon　the　real　wealth；　the　annual　produce

of　the　land　and　labour　of　the　society。　　





　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　BOOK　ONE



OF　THE　CAUSES　OF　IMPROVEMENT　IN　THE　PRODUCTIVE　POWERS。　OF　LABOUR；

AND　OF　THE　ORDER　ACCORDING　TO　WHICH　ITS。　PRODUCE　IS　NATURALLY

DISTRIBUTED　AMONG　THE　DIFFERENT　RANKS　OF　THE　PEOPLE。　





　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　CHAPTER　I



　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Of　the　Division　of　Labour　



　　　　　THE　greatest　improvement　in　the　productive　powers　of　labour；

and　the　greater　part　of　the　skill；　dexterity；　and　judgment　with

which　it　is　anywhere　directed；　or　applied；　seem　to　have　been　the

effects　of　the　division　of　labour。

　　　　　The　effects　of　the　division　of　labour；　in　the　general

business　of　society；　will　be　more　easily　understood　by

considering　in　what　manner　it　operates　in　some　particular

manufactures。　It　is　commonly　supposed　to　be　carried　furthest　in

some　very　trifling　ones；　not　perhaps　that　it　really　is　carried

further　in　them　than　in　others　of　more　importance：　but　in　those

trifling　manufactures　which　are　destined　to　supply　the　small

wants　of　but　a　small　number　of　people；　the　whole　number　of

workmen　must　necessarily　be　small；　and　those　employed　in　every

different　branch　of　the　work　can　often　be　collected　into　the　same

workhouse；　and　placed　at　once　under　the　view　of　the　spectator。　In

those　great　manufactures；　on　the　contrary；　which　are　destined　to

supply　the　great　wants　of　the　great　body　of　the　people；　every

different　branch　of　the　work　employs　so　great　a　number　of　workmen

that　it　is　impossible　to　collect　them　all　into　the　same

workhouse。　We　can　seldom　see　more；　at　one　time；　than　those

employed　in　one　single　branch。　Though　in　such　manufactures；

therefore；　the　work　may　really　be　divided　into　a　much　greater

number　of　parts　than　in　those　of　a　more　trifling　nature；　the

division　is　not　near　so　obvious；　and　has　accordingly　been　much

less　observed。

　　　　　To　take　an　example；　therefore；　from　a　very　trifling

manufacture；　but　one　in　which　the　division　of　labour　has　been

very　often　taken　notice　of；　the　trade　of　the　pin…maker；　a　workman

not　educated　to　this　business　（which　the　division　of　labour　has

rendered　a　distinct　trade）；　nor　acquainted　with　the　use　of　the

machinery　employed　in　it　（to　the　invention　of　which　the　same

division　of　labour　has　probably　given　occasion）；　could　scarce；

perhaps；　with　his　utmost　industry；　make　one　pin　in　a　day；　and

certainly　could　not　make　twenty。　But　in　the　way　in　which　this

business　i