the crowd-µÚ27½Ú
°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡û »ò ¡ú ¿É¿ìËÙÉÏÏ·ҳ£¬°´¼üÅÌÉ쵀 Enter ¼ü¿É»Øµ½±¾ÊéĿ¼ҳ£¬°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡ü ¿É»Øµ½±¾Ò³¶¥²¿£¡
¡ª¡ª¡ª¡ªÎ´ÔĶÁÍꣿ¼ÓÈëÊéÇ©ÒѱãÏ´μÌÐøÔĶÁ£¡
ds£»¡¡who¡¡are¡¡uninfluenced¡¡by¡¡reason¡¡and¡¡can¡¡only¡¡be¡¡guided¡¡by¡¡sentiment£¿
As¡¡to¡¡the¡¡press£»¡¡which¡¡formerly¡¡directed¡¡opinion£»¡¡it¡¡has¡¡had£»¡¡like¡¡governments£»¡¡to¡¡humble¡¡itself¡¡before¡¡the¡¡power¡¡of¡¡crowds¡£¡¡It¡¡wields£»¡¡no¡¡doubt£»¡¡a¡¡considerable¡¡influence£»¡¡but¡¡only¡¡because¡¡it¡¡is¡¡exclusively¡¡the¡¡reflection¡¡of¡¡the¡¡opinions¡¡of¡¡crowds¡¡and¡¡of¡¡their¡¡incessant¡¡variations¡£¡¡¡¡Become¡¡a¡¡mere¡¡agency¡¡for¡¡the¡¡supply¡¡of¡¡information£»¡¡the¡¡press¡¡has¡¡renounced¡¡all¡¡endeavour¡¡to¡¡enforce¡¡an¡¡idea¡¡or¡¡a¡¡doctrine¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡follows¡¡all¡¡the¡¡changes¡¡of¡¡public¡¡thought£»¡¡obliged¡¡to¡¡do¡¡so¡¡by¡¡the¡¡necessities¡¡of¡¡competition¡¡under¡¡pain¡¡of¡¡losing¡¡its¡¡readers¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡old¡¡staid¡¡and¡¡influential¡¡organs¡¡of¡¡the¡¡past£»¡¡such¡¡as¡¡the¡¡Constitutionnel£»¡¡the¡¡Debats£»¡¡or¡¡the¡¡Siecle£»¡¡which¡¡were¡¡accepted¡¡as¡¡oracles¡¡by¡¡the¡¡preceding¡¡generation£»¡¡have¡¡disappeared¡¡or¡¡have¡¡become¡¡typical¡¡modern¡¡papers£»¡¡in¡¡which¡¡a¡¡maximum¡¡of¡¡news¡¡is¡¡sandwiched¡¡in¡¡between¡¡light¡¡articles£»¡¡society¡¡gossip£»¡¡and¡¡financial¡¡puffs¡£¡¡¡¡There¡¡can¡¡be¡¡no¡¡question¡¡to¡day¡¡of¡¡a¡¡paper¡¡rich¡¡enough¡¡to¡¡allow¡¡its¡¡contributors¡¡to¡¡air¡¡their¡¡personal¡¡opinions£»¡¡and¡¡such¡¡opinions¡¡would¡¡be¡¡of¡¡slight¡¡weight¡¡with¡¡readers¡¡who¡¡only¡¡ask¡¡to¡¡be¡¡kept¡¡informed¡¡or¡¡to¡¡be¡¡amused£»¡¡and¡¡who¡¡suspect¡¡every¡¡affirmation¡¡of¡¡being¡¡prompted¡¡by¡¡motives¡¡of¡¡speculation¡£¡¡¡¡Even¡¡the¡¡critics¡¡have¡¡ceased¡¡to¡¡be¡¡able¡¡to¡¡assure¡¡the¡¡success¡¡of¡¡a¡¡book¡¡or¡¡a¡¡play¡£¡¡¡¡They¡¡are¡¡capable¡¡of¡¡doing¡¡harm£»¡¡but¡¡not¡¡of¡¡doing¡¡a¡¡service¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡papers¡¡are¡¡so¡¡conscious¡¡of¡¡the¡¡uselessness¡¡of¡¡everything¡¡in¡¡the¡¡shape¡¡of¡¡criticism¡¡or¡¡personal¡¡opinion£»¡¡that¡¡they¡¡have¡¡reached¡¡the¡¡point¡¡of¡¡suppressing¡¡literary¡¡criticism£»¡¡confining¡¡themselves¡¡to¡¡citing¡¡the¡¡title¡¡of¡¡a¡¡book£»¡¡and¡¡appending¡¡a¡¡¡¨puff¡¨¡¡of¡¡two¡¡or¡¡three¡¡lines¡££§22£§¡¡¡¡In¡¡twenty¡¡years'¡¡time¡¡the¡¡same¡¡fate¡¡will¡¡probably¡¡have¡¡overtaken¡¡theatrical¡¡criticism¡£
£§22£§¡¡These¡¡remarks¡¡refer¡¡to¡¡the¡¡French¡¡newspaper¡¡press¡£Note¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Translator¡£
The¡¡close¡¡watching¡¡of¡¡the¡¡course¡¡of¡¡opinion¡¡has¡¡become¡¡to¡day¡¡the¡¡principal¡¡preoccupation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡press¡¡and¡¡of¡¡governments¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡effect¡¡produced¡¡by¡¡an¡¡event£»¡¡a¡¡legislative¡¡proposal£»¡¡a¡¡speech£»¡¡is¡¡without¡¡intermission¡¡what¡¡they¡¡require¡¡to¡¡know£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡task¡¡is¡¡not¡¡easy£»¡¡for¡¡nothing¡¡is¡¡more¡¡mobile¡¡and¡¡changeable¡¡than¡¡the¡¡thought¡¡of¡¡crowds£»¡¡and¡¡nothing¡¡more¡¡frequent¡¡than¡¡to¡¡see¡¡them¡¡execrate¡¡to¡day¡¡what¡¡they¡¡applauded¡¡yesterday¡£
This¡¡total¡¡absence¡¡of¡¡any¡¡sort¡¡of¡¡direction¡¡of¡¡opinion£»¡¡and¡¡at¡¡the¡¡same¡¡time¡¡the¡¡destruction¡¡of¡¡general¡¡beliefs£»¡¡have¡¡had¡¡for¡¡final¡¡result¡¡an¡¡extreme¡¡divergency¡¡of¡¡convictions¡¡of¡¡every¡¡order£»¡¡and¡¡a¡¡growing¡¡indifference¡¡on¡¡the¡¡part¡¡of¡¡crowds¡¡to¡¡everything¡¡that¡¡does¡¡not¡¡plainly¡¡touch¡¡their¡¡immediate¡¡interests¡£¡¡¡¡Questions¡¡of¡¡doctrine£»¡¡such¡¡as¡¡socialism£»¡¡only¡¡recruit¡¡champions¡¡boasting¡¡genuine¡¡convictions¡¡among¡¡the¡¡quite¡¡illiterate¡¡classes£»¡¡among¡¡the¡¡workers¡¡in¡¡mines¡¡and¡¡factories£»¡¡for¡¡instance¡£¡¡¡¡Members¡¡of¡¡the¡¡lower¡¡middle¡¡class£»¡¡and¡¡working¡¡men¡¡possessing¡¡some¡¡degree¡¡of¡¡instruction£»¡¡have¡¡either¡¡become¡¡utterly¡¡sceptical¡¡or¡¡extremely¡¡unstable¡¡in¡¡their¡¡opinions¡£
The¡¡evolution¡¡which¡¡has¡¡been¡¡effected¡¡in¡¡this¡¡direction¡¡in¡¡the¡¡last¡¡twenty¡five¡¡years¡¡is¡¡striking¡£¡¡¡¡During¡¡the¡¡preceding¡¡period£»¡¡comparatively¡¡near¡¡us¡¡though¡¡it¡¡is£»¡¡opinions¡¡still¡¡had¡¡a¡¡certain¡¡general¡¡trend£»¡¡they¡¡had¡¡their¡¡origin¡¡in¡¡the¡¡acceptance¡¡of¡¡some¡¡fundamental¡¡belief¡£¡¡¡¡By¡¡the¡¡mere¡¡fact¡¡that¡¡an¡¡individual¡¡was¡¡a¡¡monarchist¡¡he¡¡possessed¡¡inevitably¡¡certain¡¡clearly¡¡defined¡¡ideas¡¡in¡¡history¡¡as¡¡well¡¡as¡¡in¡¡science£»¡¡while¡¡by¡¡the¡¡mere¡¡fact¡¡that¡¡he¡¡was¡¡a¡¡republican£»¡¡his¡¡ideas¡¡were¡¡quite¡¡contrary¡£¡¡¡¡A¡¡monarchist¡¡was¡¡well¡¡aware¡¡that¡¡men¡¡are¡¡not¡¡descended¡¡from¡¡monkeys£»¡¡and¡¡a¡¡republican¡¡was¡¡not¡¡less¡¡well¡¡aware¡¡that¡¡such¡¡is¡¡in¡¡truth¡¡their¡¡descent¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡was¡¡the¡¡duty¡¡of¡¡the¡¡monarchist¡¡to¡¡speak¡¡with¡¡horror£»¡¡and¡¡of¡¡the¡¡republican¡¡to¡¡speak¡¡with¡¡veneration£»¡¡of¡¡the¡¡great¡¡Revolution¡£¡¡¡¡There¡¡were¡¡certain¡¡names£»¡¡such¡¡as¡¡those¡¡of¡¡Robespierre¡¡and¡¡Marat£»¡¡that¡¡had¡¡to¡¡be¡¡uttered¡¡with¡¡an¡¡air¡¡of¡¡religious¡¡devotion£»¡¡and¡¡other¡¡names£»¡¡such¡¡as¡¡those¡¡of¡¡Caesar£»¡¡Augustus£»¡¡or¡¡Napoleon£»¡¡that¡¡ought¡¡never¡¡to¡¡be¡¡mentioned¡¡unaccompanied¡¡by¡¡a¡¡torrent¡¡of¡¡invective¡£¡¡¡¡Even¡¡in¡¡the¡¡French¡¡Sorbonne¡¡this¡¡ingenuous¡¡fashion¡¡of¡¡conceiving¡¡history¡¡was¡¡general¡££§23£§
£§23£§¡¡There¡¡are¡¡pages¡¡in¡¡the¡¡books¡¡of¡¡the¡¡French¡¡official¡¡professors¡¡of¡¡history¡¡that¡¡are¡¡very¡¡curious¡¡from¡¡this¡¡point¡¡of¡¡view¡£¡¡¡¡They¡¡prove¡¡too¡¡how¡¡little¡¡the¡¡critical¡¡spirit¡¡is¡¡developed¡¡by¡¡the¡¡system¡¡of¡¡university¡¡education¡¡in¡¡vogue¡¡in¡¡France¡£¡¡¡¡I¡¡cite¡¡as¡¡an¡¡example¡¡the¡¡following¡¡extracts¡¡from¡¡the¡¡¡¨French¡¡Revolution¡¨¡¡of¡¡M¡£¡¡Rambaud£»¡¡professor¡¡of¡¡history¡¡at¡¡the¡¡Sorbonne£º
¡¨The¡¡taking¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Bastille¡¡was¡¡a¡¡culminating¡¡event¡¡in¡¡the¡¡history¡¡not¡¡only¡¡of¡¡France£»¡¡but¡¡of¡¡all¡¡Europe£»¡¡and¡¡inaugurated¡¡a¡¡new¡¡epoch¡¡in¡¡the¡¡history¡¡of¡¡the¡¡world£¡¡¨
With¡¡respect¡¡to¡¡Robespierre£»¡¡we¡¡learn¡¡with¡¡stupefaction¡¡that¡¡¡¨his¡¡dictatorship¡¡was¡¡based¡¡more¡¡especially¡¡on¡¡opinion£»¡¡persuasion£»¡¡and¡¡moral¡¡authority£»¡¡it¡¡was¡¡a¡¡sort¡¡of¡¡pontificate¡¡in¡¡the¡¡hands¡¡of¡¡a¡¡virtuous¡¡man£¡¡¨¡¡£¨pp¡£¡¡91¡¡and¡¡220¡££©
At¡¡the¡¡present¡¡day£»¡¡as¡¡the¡¡result¡¡of¡¡discussion¡¡and¡¡analysis£»¡¡all¡¡opinions¡¡are¡¡losing¡¡their¡¡prestige£»¡¡their¡¡distinctive¡¡features¡¡are¡¡rapidly¡¡worn¡¡away£»¡¡and¡¡few¡¡survive¡¡capable¡¡of¡¡arousing¡¡our¡¡enthusiasm¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡man¡¡of¡¡modern¡¡times¡¡is¡¡more¡¡and¡¡more¡¡a¡¡prey¡¡to¡¡indifference¡£
The¡¡general¡¡wearing¡¡away¡¡of¡¡opinions¡¡should¡¡not¡¡be¡¡too¡¡greatly¡¡deplored¡£¡¡¡¡That¡¡it¡¡is¡¡a¡¡symptom¡¡of¡¡decadence¡¡in¡¡the¡¡life¡¡of¡¡a¡¡people¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡contested¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡is¡¡certain¡¡that¡¡men¡¡of¡¡immense£»¡¡of¡¡almost¡¡supernatural¡¡insight£»¡¡that¡¡apostles£»¡¡leaders¡¡of¡¡crowdsmen£»¡¡in¡¡a¡¡word£»¡¡of¡¡genuine¡¡and¡¡strong¡¡convictionsexert¡¡a¡¡far¡¡greater¡¡force¡¡than¡¡men¡¡who¡¡deny£»¡¡who¡¡criticise£»¡¡or¡¡who¡¡are¡¡indifferent£»¡¡but¡¡it¡¡must¡¡not¡¡be¡¡forgotten¡¡that£»¡¡given¡¡the¡¡power¡¡possessed¡¡at¡¡present¡¡by¡¡crowds£»¡¡were¡¡a¡¡single¡¡opinion¡¡to¡¡acquire¡¡sufficient¡¡prestige¡¡to¡¡enforce¡¡its¡¡general¡¡acceptance£»¡¡it¡¡would¡¡soon¡¡be¡¡endowed¡¡with¡¡so¡¡tyrannical¡¡a¡¡strength¡¡that¡¡everything¡¡would¡¡have¡¡to¡¡bend¡¡before¡¡it£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡era¡¡of¡¡free¡¡discussion¡¡would¡¡be¡¡closed¡¡for¡¡a¡¡long¡¡time¡£¡¡¡¡Crowds¡¡are¡¡occasionally¡¡easy¡going¡¡masters£»¡¡as¡¡were¡¡Heliogabalus¡¡and¡¡Tiberius£»¡¡but¡¡they¡¡are¡¡also¡¡violently¡¡capricious¡£¡¡¡¡A¡¡civilisation£»¡¡when¡¡the¡¡moment¡¡has¡¡come¡¡for¡¡crowds¡¡to¡¡acquire¡¡a¡¡high¡¡hand¡¡over¡¡it£»¡¡is¡¡at¡¡the¡¡mercy¡¡of¡¡too¡¡many¡¡chances¡¡to¡¡endure¡¡for¡¡long¡£¡¡¡¡Could¡¡anything¡¡postpone¡¡for¡¡a¡¡while¡¡the¡¡hour¡¡of¡¡its¡¡ruin£»¡¡it¡¡would¡¡be¡¡precisely¡¡the¡¡extreme¡¡instability¡¡of¡¡the¡¡opinions¡¡of¡¡crowds¡¡and¡¡their¡¡growing¡¡indifference¡¡with¡¡respect¡¡to¡¡all¡¡general¡¡beliefs¡£
BOOK¡¡III
THE¡¡CLASSIFICATION¡¡AND¡¡DESCRIPTION¡¡OF¡¡THE¡¡DIFFERENT¡¡KINDS¡¡OF¡¡CROWDS
CHAPTER¡¡I
THE¡¡CLASSIFICATION¡¡OF¡¡CROWDS
The¡¡general¡¡divisions¡¡of¡¡crowdsTheir¡¡classification¡£¡¡¡¡¡¡1¡£¡¡HETEROGENEOUS¡¡CROWDS¡£¡¡¡¡Different¡¡varieties¡¡of¡¡themThe¡¡influence¡¡of¡¡raceThe¡¡spirit¡¡of¡¡the¡¡crowd¡¡is¡¡weak¡¡in¡¡proportion¡¡as¡¡the¡¡spirit¡¡of¡¡the¡¡race¡¡is¡¡strongThe¡¡spirit¡¡of¡¡the¡¡race¡¡represents¡¡the¡¡civilised¡¡state¡¡and¡¡the¡¡spirit¡¡of¡¡the¡¡crowd¡¡the¡¡barbarian¡¡state¡£¡¡¡¡¡¡2¡£¡¡HOMOGENEOUS¡¡CROWDS¡£¡¡¡¡Their¡¡different¡¡varietiesSects£»¡¡castes£»¡¡and¡¡classes¡£
We¡¡have¡¡sketched¡¡in¡¡this¡¡work¡¡the¡¡general¡¡characteristics¡¡common¡¡to¡¡psychological¡¡crowds¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡remains¡¡to¡¡point¡¡out¡¡the¡¡particular¡¡characteristics¡¡which¡¡accompany¡¡those¡¡of¡¡a¡¡general¡¡order¡¡in¡¡the¡¡different¡¡categories¡¡of¡¡collectivities£»¡¡when¡¡they¡¡are¡¡transformed¡¡into¡¡a¡¡crowd¡¡under¡¡the¡¡influences¡¡of¡¡the¡¡proper¡¡exciting¡¡causes¡£¡¡We¡¡will£»¡¡first¡¡of¡¡all£»¡¡set¡¡forth¡¡in¡¡a¡¡few¡¡words¡¡a¡¡classification¡¡of¡¡crowds¡£
Our¡¡starting¡point¡¡will¡¡be¡¡the¡¡simple¡¡multitude¡£¡¡¡¡Its¡¡most¡¡inferior¡¡form¡¡is¡¡met¡¡with¡¡when¡¡the¡¡multitude¡¡is¡¡composed¡¡of¡¡individuals¡¡belonging¡¡to¡¡different¡¡races¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡this¡¡case¡¡its¡¡only¡¡common¡¡bond¡¡of¡¡union¡¡is¡¡the¡¡will£»¡¡more¡¡or¡¡less¡¡respected¡¡of¡¡a¡¡chief¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡barbarians¡¡of¡¡very¡¡diverse¡¡origin¡¡who¡¡during¡¡several¡¡centuries¡¡invaded¡¡the¡¡Roman¡¡Empire£»¡¡may¡¡be¡¡cited¡¡as¡¡a¡¡specimen¡¡of¡¡multitudes¡¡of¡¡this¡¡kind¡£
On¡¡a¡¡higher¡¡level¡¡than¡¡these¡¡multitudes¡¡composed¡¡of¡¡different¡¡races¡¡are¡¡those¡¡which¡¡under¡¡certain¡¡influences¡¡have¡¡acquired¡¡common¡¡characteristics£»¡¡and¡¡have¡¡ended¡¡by¡¡forming¡¡a¡¡single¡¡race¡£¡¡They¡¡present¡¡at¡¡times¡¡characteristics¡¡peculiar¡¡to¡¡crowds£»¡¡but¡¡these¡¡characteristics¡¡are¡¡overruled¡¡to¡¡a¡¡greater¡¡or¡¡less¡¡extent¡¡by¡¡racial¡¡considerations¡£
These¡¡two¡¡kinds¡¡of¡¡multitudes¡¡may£»¡¡under¡¡certain¡¡influences¡¡investigated¡¡in¡¡this¡¡work£»¡¡be¡¡transformed¡¡into¡¡organised¡¡or¡¡psychological¡¡crowds¡£¡¡¡¡We¡¡shall¡¡break¡¡up¡¡these¡¡organised¡¡crowds¡¡into¡¡the¡¡following¡¡divisions£º
¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡1¡£¡¡Anonymous¡¡crowds¡¡£¨street¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡crowds£»¡¡for¡¡example£©¡£¡¡A¡£¡¡Heterogeneous¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡2¡£¡¡Crowds¡¡not¡¡anonymous¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡crowds¡£¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡£¨juries£»¡¡parliamentary¡¡assemblies£»¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡&c¡££©¡£¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡1¡£¡¡Sects¡¡£¨political¡¡sects£»¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡religious¡¡sects£»¡¡&c¡££©¡£¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡2¡£¡¡Castes¡¡£¨the¡¡military¡¡caste£»¡¡B¡£¡¡Homogeneous¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡priestly¡¡caste£»¡¡the¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡crowds¡£¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡working¡¡caste£»¡¡&c¡££©¡£¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡3¡£¡¡Classes¡¡£¨the¡¡middle¡¡classes£»¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡peasant¡¡classes£»¡¡&c¡££©¡£
We¡¡will¡¡point¡¡out¡¡briefly¡¡the¡¡distinguishing¡¡characteristics¡¡of¡¡these¡¡different¡¡categories¡¡of¡¡crowds¡£
1¡£¡¡HETEROGENEOUS¡¡CROWDS
It¡¡is¡¡these¡¡collectivities¡¡whose¡¡characteristics¡¡have¡¡been¡¡studied¡¡in¡¡this¡¡volume¡£¡¡¡¡They¡¡are¡¡composed¡¡of¡¡individuals¡¡of¡¡any¡¡description£»¡¡of¡¡any¡¡profession£»¡¡and¡¡any¡¡degree¡¡of¡¡intelligence¡£
We¡¡are¡¡now¡¡aware¡¡that¡¡by¡¡the¡¡mere¡¡fact¡¡that¡¡men¡¡form¡¡part¡¡of¡¡a¡¡crowd¡¡engaged¡¡in¡¡action£»¡¡their¡¡collective¡¡psychology¡¡differs¡¡essentially¡¡fr