the crowd-第18节

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g　chapter　how　these　factors　should　be　put　in　force　in　order　that　they　may　produce　their　full　effect。

In　the　first　part　of　this　work　we　studied　the　sentiments；　ideas；　and　methods　of　reasoning　of　collective　bodies；　and　from　the　knowledge　thus　acquired　it　would　evidently　be　possible　to　deduce　in　a　general　way　the　means　of　making　an　impression　on　their　mind。　We　already　know　what　strikes　the　imagination　of　crowds；　and　are　acquainted　with　the　power　and　contagiousness　of　suggestions；　of　those　especially　that　are　presented　under　the　form　of　images。　However；　as　suggestions　may　proceed　from　very　different　sources；　the　factors　capable　of　acting　on　the　minds　of　crowds　may　differ　considerably。　　It　is　necessary；　then；　to　study　them　separately。　This　is　not　a　useless　study。　　Crowds　are　somewhat　like　the　sphinx　of　ancient　fable：　it　is　necessary　to　arrive　at　a　solution　of　the　problems　offered　by　their　psychology　or　to　resign　ourselves　to　being　devoured　by　them。

1。　IMAGES；　WORDS；　AND　FORMULAS


When　studying　the　imagination　of　crowds　we　saw　that　it　is　particularly　open　to　the　impressions　produced　by　images。　　These　images　do　not　always　lie　ready　to　hand；　but　it　is　possible　to　evoke　them　by　the　judicious　employment　of　words　and　formulas。　Handled　with　art；　they　possess　in　sober　truth　the　mysterious　power　formerly　attributed　to　them　by　the　adepts　of　magic。　　They　cause　the　birth　in　the　minds　of　crowds　of　the　most　formidable　tempests；　which　in　turn　they　are　capable　of　stilling。　　A　pyramid　far　loftier　than　that　of　old　Cheops　could　be　raised　merely　with　the　bones　of　men　who　have　been　victims　of　the　power　of　words　and　formulas。

The　power　of　words　is　bound　up　with　the　images　they　evoke；　and　is　quite　independent　of　their　real　significance。　　Words　whose　sense　is　the　most　ill…defined　are　sometimes　those　that　possess　the　most　influence。　　Such；　for　example；　are　the　terms　democracy；　socialism；　equality；　liberty；　&c。；　whose　meaning　is　so　vague　that　bulky　volumes　do　not　suffice　to　precisely　fix　it。　　Yet　it　is　certain　that　a　truly　magical　power　is　attached　to　those　short　syllables；　as　if　they　contained　the　solution　of　all　problems。　They　synthesise　the　most　diverse　unconscious　aspirations　and　the　hope　of　their　realisation。

Reason　and　arguments　are　incapable　of　combatting　certain　words　and　formulas。　　They　are　uttered　with　solemnity　in　the　presence　of　crowds；　and　as　soon　as　they　have　been　pronounced　an　expression　of　respect　is　visible　on　every　countenance；　and　all　heads　are　bowed。　By　many　they　are　considered　as　natural　forces；　as　supernatural　powers。　　They　evoke　grandiose　and　vague　images　in　men's　minds；　but　this　very　vagueness　that　wraps　them　in　obscurity　augments　their　mysterious　power。　　They　are　the　mysterious　divinities　hidden　behind　the　tabernacle；　which　the　devout　only　approach　in　fear　and　trembling。

The　images　evoked　by　words　being　independent　of　their　sense；　they　vary　from　age　to　age　and　from　people　to　people；　the　formulas　remaining　identical。　　Certain　transitory　images　are　attached　to　certain　words：　the　word　is　merely　as　it　were　the　button　of　an　electric　bell　that　calls　them　up。

All　words　and　all　formulas　do　not　possess　the　power　of　evoking　images；　while　there　are　some　which　have　once　had　this　power；　but　lose　it　in　the　course　of　use；　and　cease　to　waken　any　response　in　the　mind。　　They　then　become　vain　sounds；　whose　principal　utility　is　to　relieve　the　person　who　employs　them　of　the　obligation　of　thinking。　　Armed　with　a　small　stock　of　formulas　and　commonplaces　learnt　while　we　are　young；　we　possess　all　that　is　needed　to　traverse　life　without　the　tiring　necessity　of　having　to　reflect　on　anything　whatever。

If　any　particular　language　be　studied；　it　is　seen　that　the　words　of　which　it　is　composed　change　rather　slowly　in　the　course　of　ages；　while　the　images　these　words　evoke　or　the　meaning　attached　to　them　changes　ceaselessly。　　This　is　the　reason　why；　in　another　work；　I　have　arrived　at　the　conclusion　that　the　absolute　translation　of　a　language；　especially　of　a　dead　language；　is　totally　impossible。　　What　do　we　do　in　reality　when　we　substitute　a　French　for　a　Latin；　Greek；　or　Sanscrit　expression；　or　even　when　we　endeavour　to　understand　a　book　written　in　our　own　tongue　two　or　three　centuries　back？　　We　merely　put　the　images　and　ideas　with　which　modern　life　has　endowed　our　intelligence　in　the　place　of　absolutely　distinct　notions　and　images　which　ancient　life　had　brought　into　being　in　the　mind　of　races　submitted　to　conditions　of　existence　having　no　analogy　with　our　own。　　When　the　men　of　the　Revolution　imagined　they　were　copying　the　Greeks　and　Romans；　what　were　they　doing　except　giving　to　ancient　words　a　sense　the　latter　had　never　had？　　What　resemblance　can　possibly　exist　between　the　institutions　of　the　Greeks　and　those　designated　to…day　by　corresponding　words？　　A　republic　at　that　epoch　was　an　essentially　aristocratic　institution；　formed　of　a　reunion　of　petty　despots　ruling　over　a　crowd　of　slaves　kept　in　the　most　absolute　subjection。　　These　communal　aristocracies；　based　on　slavery；　could　not　have　existed　for　a　moment　without　it。

The　word　〃liberty；〃　again；　what　signification　could　it　have　in　any　way　resembling　that　we　attribute　to　it　to…day　at　a　period　when　the　possibility　of　the　liberty　of　thought　was　not　even　suspected；　and　when　there　was　no　greater　and　more　exceptional　crime　than　that　of　discussing　the　gods；　the　laws　and　the　customs　of　the　city？　　What　did　such　a　word　as　〃fatherland〃　signify　to　an　Athenian　or　Spartan　unless　it　were　the　cult　of　Athens　or　Sparta；　and　in　no　wise　that　of　Greece；　composed　of　rival　cities　always　at　war　with　each　other？　　What　meaning　had　the　same　word　〃fatherland〃　among　the　ancient　Gauls；　divided　into　rival　tribes　and　races；　and　possessing　different　languages　and　religions；　and　who　were　easily　vanquished　by　Caesar　because　he　always　found　allies　among　them？　It　was　Rome　that　made　a　country　of　Gaul　by　endowing　it　with　political　and　religious　unity。　　Without　going　back　so　far；　scarcely　two　centuries　ago；　is　it　to　be　believed　that　this　same　notion　of　a　fatherland　was　conceived　to　have　the　same　meaning　as　at　present　by　French　princes　like　the　great　Conde；　who　allied　themselves　with　the　foreigner　against　their　sovereign？　　And　yet　again；　the　same　word　had　it　not　a　sense　very　different　from　the　modern　for　the　French　royalist　emigrants；　who　thought　they　obeyed　the　laws　of　honour　in　fighting　against　France；　and　who　from　their　point　of　view　did　indeed　obey　them；　since　the　feudal　law　bound　the　vassal　to　the　lord　and　not　to　the　soil；　so　that　where　the　sovereign　was　there　was　the　true　fatherland？

Numerous　are　the　words　whose　meaning　has　thus　profoundly　changed　from　age　to　agewords　which　we　can　only　arrive　at　understanding　in　the　sense　in　which　they　were　formerly　understood　after　a　long　effort。　　It　has　been　said　with　truth　that　much　study　is　necessary　merely　to　arrive　at　conceiving　what　was　signified　to　our　great　grandfathers　by　such　words　as　the　〃king〃　and　the　〃royal　family。〃　What；　then；　is　likely　to　be　the　case　with　terms　still　more　complex？

Words；　then；　have　only　mobile　and　transitory　significations　which　change　from　age　to　age　and　people　to　people；　and　when　we　desire　to　exert　an　influence　by　their　means　on　the　crowd　what　it　is　requisite　to　know　is　the　meaning　given　them　by　the　crowd　at　a　given　moment；　and　not　the　meaning　which　they　formerly　had　or　may　yet　have　for　individuals　of　a　different　mental　constitution。

Thus；　when　crowds　have　come；　as　the　result　of　political　upheavals　or　changes　of　belief；　to　acquire　a　profound　antipathy　for　the　images　evoked　by　certain　words；　the　first　duty　of　the　true　statesman　is　to　change　the　words　without；　of　course；　laying　hands　on　the　things　themselves；　the　latter　being　too　intimately　bound　up　with　the　inherited　constitution　to　be　transformed。　　The　judicious　Tocqueville　long　ago　made　the　remark　that　the　work　of　the　consulate　and　the　empire　consisted　more　particularly　in　the　clothing　with　new　words　of　the　greater　part　of　the　institutions　of　the　pastthat　is　to　say；　in　replacing　words　evoking　disagreeable　images　in　the　imagination　of　the　crowd　by　other　words　of　which　the　novelty　prevented　such　evocations。　　The　〃taille〃　or　tallage　has　become　the　land　tax；　the　〃gabelle；〃　the　tax　on　salt；　the　〃aids；〃　the　indirect　contributions　and　the　consolidated　duties；　the　tax　on　trade　companies　and　guilds；　the　license；　&c。

One　of　the　most　essential　functions　of　statesmen　consists；　then；　in　baptizing　with　popular　or；　at　any　rate；　indifferent　words　things　the　crowd　cannot　endure　under　their　old　names。　　The　power　of　words　is　so　great　that　it　suffices　to　designate　in　well…chosen　terms　the　most　odious　things　to　make　them　acceptable　to　crowds。　Taine　justly　observes　that　it　was　by　invoking　liberty　and　fraternitywords　very　popular　at　the　time　that　the　Jacobins　were　able　〃to　install　a　despotism　worthy　of　Dahomey；　a　tribunal　similar　to　that　of　the　Inquisition；　and　to　accomplish　human　hecatombs　akin　to　those　of　ancient　Mexico。〃　　The　art　of　those　who　govern；　as　is　the　case　with　the　art　of　advocates；　consists　above　all　in　the　science　of　employing　words。　　One　of　the　greatest　difficulties　of　this　art　is；　that　in　one　and　the　same　society　the　same　words　most　often　have　very　different　meanings　for　the　different　social　classes；　who　employ