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a　new　religion　was　seen　to　arise　in　those　days　which　had　for　its　divinities　the　emperors　themselves。　　Some　years　before　the　Christian　era　the　whole　of　Gaul；　represented　by　sixty　cities；　built　in　common　a　temple　near　the　town　of　Lyons　in　honour　of　Augustus。　。　。　。　　Its　priests；　elected　by　the　united　Gallic　cities；　were　the　principal　personages　in　their　country。　。　。　。　　It　is　impossible　to　attribute　all　this　to　fear　and　servility。　　Whole　nations　are　not　servile；　and　especially　for　three　centuries。　　It　was　not　the　courtiers　who　worshipped　the　prince；　it　was　Rome；　and　it　was　not　Rome　merely；　but　it　was　Gaul；　it　was　Spain；　it　was　Greece　and　Asia。〃

To…day　the　majority　of　the　great　men　who　have　swayed　men's　minds　no　longer　have　altars；　but　they　have　statues；　or　their　portraits　are　in　the　hands　of　their　admirers；　and　the　cult　of　which　they　are　the　object　is　not　notably　different　from　that　accorded　to　their　predecessors。　　An　understanding　of　the　philosophy　of　history　is　only　to　be　got　by　a　thorough　appreciation　of　this　fundamental　point　of　the　psychology　of　crowds。　　The　crowd　demands　a　god　before　everything　else。

It　must　not　be　supposed　that　these　are　the　superstitions　of　a　bygone　age　which　reason　has　definitely　banished。　　Sentiment　has　never　been　vanquished　in　its　eternal　conflict　with　reason。　Crowds　will　hear　no　more　of　the　words　divinity　and　religion；　in　whose　name　they　were　so　long　enslaved；　but　they　have　never　possessed　so　many　fetishes　as　in　the　last　hundred　years；　and　the　old　divinities　have　never　had　so　many　statues　and　altars　raised　in　their　honour。　　Those　who　in　recent　years　have　studied　the　popular　movement　known　under　the　name　of　Boulangism　have　been　able　to　see　with　what　ease　the　religious　instincts　of　crowds　are　ready　to　revive。　　There　was　not　a　country　inn　that　did　not　possess　the　hero's　portrait。　　He　was　credited　with　the　power　of　remedying　all　injustices　and　all　evils；　and　thousands　of　men　would　have　given　their　lives　for　him。　　Great　might　have　been　his　place　in　history　had　his　character　been　at　all　on　a　level　with　his　legendary　reputation。

It　is　thus　a　very　useless　commonplace　to　assert　that　a　religion　is　necessary　for　the　masses；　because　all　political；　divine；　and　social　creeds　only　take　root　among　them　on　the　condition　of　always　assuming　the　religious　shapea　shape　which　obviates　the　danger　of　discussion。　　Were　it　possible　to　induce　the　masses　to　adopt　atheism；　this　belief　would　exhibit　all　the　intolerant　ardour　of　a　religious　sentiment；　and　in　its　exterior　forms　would　soon　become　a　cult。　　The　evolution　of　the　small　Positivist　sect　furnishes　us　a　curious　proof　in　point。　　What　happened　to　the　Nihilist　whose　story　is　related　by　that　profound　thinker　Dostoiewsky　has　quickly　happened　to　the　Positivists。　　Illumined　one　day　by　the　light　of　reason　he　broke　the　images　of　divinities　and　saints　that　adorned　the　altar　of　a　chapel；　extinguished　the　candles；　and；　without　losing　a　moment；　replaced　the　destroyed　objects　by　the　works　of　atheistic　philosophers　such　as　Buchner　and　Moleschott；　after　which　he　piously　relighted　the　candles。　The　object　of　his　religious　beliefs　had　been　transformed；　but　can　it　be　truthfully　said　that　his　religious　sentiments　had　changed？

Certain　historical　eventsand　they　are　precisely　the　most　importantI　again　repeat；　are　not　to　be　understood　unless　one　has　attained　to　an　appreciation　of　the　religious　form　which　the　convictions　of　crowds　always　assume　in　the　long　run。　　There　are　social　phenomena　that　need　to　be　studied　far　more　from　the　point　of　view　of　the　psychologist　than　from　that　of　the　naturalist。　The　great　historian　Taine　has　only　studied　the　Revolution　as　a　naturalist；　and　on　this　account　the　real　genesis　of　events　has　often　escaped　him。　　He　has　perfectly　observed　the　facts；　but　from　want　of　having　studied　the　psychology　of　crowds　he　has　not　always　been　able　to　trace　their　causes。　　The　facts　having　appalled　him　by　their　bloodthirsty；　anarchic；　and　ferocious　side；　he　has　scarcely　seen　in　the　heroes　of　the　great　drama　anything　more　than　a　horde　of　epileptic　savages　abandoning　themselves　without　restraint　to　their　instincts。　　The　violence　of　the　Revolution；　its　massacres；　its　need　of　propaganda；　its　declarations　of　war　upon　all　things；　are　only　to　be　properly　explained　by　reflecting　that　the　Revolution　was　merely　the　establishment　of　a　new　religious　belief　in　the　mind　of　the　masses。　　The　Reformation；　the　massacre　of　Saint　Bartholomew；　the　French　religious　wars；　the　Inquisition；　the　Reign　of　Terror　are　phenomena　of　an　identical　kind；　brought　about　by　crowds　animated　by　those　religious　sentiments　which　necessarily　lead　those　imbued　with　them　to　pitilessly　extirpate　by　fire　and　sword　whoever　is　opposed　to　the　establishment　of　the　new　faith。　　The　methods　of　the　Inquisition　are　those　of　all　whose　convictions　are　genuine　and　sturdy。　　Their　convictions　would　not　deserve　these　epithets　did　they　resort　to　other　methods。

Upheavals　analogous　to　those　I　have　just　cited　are　only　possible　when　it　is　the　soul　of　the　masses　that　brings　them　about。　　The　most　absolute　despots　could　not　cause　them。　　When　historians　tell　us　that　the　massacre　of　Saint　Bartholomew　was　the　work　of　a　king；　they　show　themselves　as　ignorant　of　the　psychology　of　crowds　as　of　that　of　sovereigns。　　Manifestations　of　this　order　can　only　proceed　from　the　soul　of　crowds。　　The　most　absolute　power　of　the　most　despotic　monarch　can　scarcely　do　more　than　hasten　or　retard　the　moment　of　their　apparition。　　The　massacre　of　Saint　Bartholomew　or　the　religious　wars　were　no　more　the　work　of　kings　than　the　Reign　of　Terror　was　the　work　of　Robespierre；　Danton；　or　Saint　Just。　　At　the　bottom　of　such　events　is　always　to　be　found　the　working　of　the　soul　of　the　masses；　and　never　the　power　of　potentates。



BOOK　II

THE　OPINIONS　AND　BELIEFS　OF　CROWDS


CHAPTER　I

REMOTE　FACTORS　OF　THE　OPINIONS　AND　BELIEFS　OF　CROWDS

Preparatory　factors　of　the　beliefs　of　crowdsThe　origin　of　the　beliefs　of　crowds　is　the　consequence　of　a　preliminary　process　of　elaboration　Study　of　the　different　factors　of　these　beliefs。　1。　RACE。　The　predominating　influence　it　exercisesIt　represents　the　suggestions　of　ancestors。　　　2。　TRADITIONS。　They　are　the　synthesis　of　the　soul　of　the　raceSocial　importance　of　traditionsHow；　after　having　been　necessary　they　become　harmfulCrowds　are　the　most　obstinate　maintainers　of　traditional　ideas。　　　3。　TIME。　It　prepares　in　succession　the　establishment　of　beliefs　and　then　their　destruction。　　It　is　by　the　aid　of　this　factor　that　order　may　proceed　from　chaos。　　　4。　POLITICAL　AND　SOCIAL　INSTITUTIONS。　Erroneous　idea　of　their　partTheir　influence　extremely　weakThey　are　effects；　not　causesNations　are　incapable　of　choosing　what　appear　to　them　the　best　institutionsInstitutions　are　labels　which　shelter　the　most　dissimilar　things　under　the　same　title　How　institutions　may　come　to　be　createdCertain　institutions　theoretically　bad；　such　as　centralisation　obligatory　for　certain　nations。　　　5。　INSTITUTIONS　AND　EDUCATION。　Falsity　of　prevalent　ideas　as　to　the　influence　of　instruction　on　crowds　Statistical　indicationsDemoralising　effect　of　Latin　system　of　educationPart　instruction　might　playExamples　furnished　by　various　peoples。


Having　studied　the　mental　constitution　of　crowds　and　become　acquainted　with　their　modes　of　feeling；　thinking；　and　reasoning；　we　shall　now　proceed　to　examine　how　their　opinions　and　beliefs　arise　and　become　established。

The　factors　which　determine　these　opinions　and　beliefs　are　of　two　kinds：　remote　factors　and　immediate　factors。

The　remote　factors　are　those　which　render　crowds　capable　of　adopting　certain　convictions　and　absolutely　refractory　to　the　acceptance　of　others。　　These　factors　prepare　the　ground　in　which　are　suddenly　seen　to　germinate　certain　new　ideas　whose　force　and　consequences　are　a　cause　of　astonishment；　though　they　are　only　spontaneous　in　appearance。　　The　outburst　and　putting　in　practice　of　certain　ideas　among　crowds　present　at　times　a　startling　suddenness。　　This　is　only　a　superficial　effect；　behind　which　must　be　sought　a　preliminary　and　preparatory　action　of　long　duration。

The　immediate　factors　are　those　which；　coming　on　the　top　of　this　long；　preparatory　working；　in　whose　absence　they　would　remain　without　effect；　serve　as　the　source　of　active　persuasion　on　crowds；　that　is；　they　are　the　factors　which　cause　the　idea　to　take　shape　and　set　it　loose　with　all　its　consequences。　　The　resolutions　by　which　collectivities　are　suddenly　carried　away　arise　out　of　these　immediate　factors；　it　is　due　to　them　that　a　riot　breaks　out　or　a　strike　is　decided　upon；　and　to　them　that　enormous　majorities　invest　one　man　with　power　to　overthrow　a　government。

The　successive　action　of　these　two　kinds　of　factors　is　to　be　traced　in　all　great　historical　events。　　The　French　Revolutionto　cite　but　one　of　the　most　striking　of　such　eventshad　among　its　remote　factors　the　writings　of　the　philosophers；　the　exactions　of　the　nobility；　and　the　progress　of　scientific　thought。　　The　mind　of　the　masses；　thus　prepared；　was　then　easily　roused　by　such　immediate　factors　as　the　speeches　of　orators；　and　the　resistance　of　the　court　party　to　insignificant　reforms。

Among　the　remote　factors　there　are　some　of　a　general　nature；　which　are　found　to　underlie　all　the　beliefs　and　opinion