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　gather　in　dozens　for　the　pleasure　of　taking　part　in　the　pursuit　and　killing　of　a　luckless　stag　by　their　hounds。

A　crowd　may　be　guilty　of　murder；　incendiarism；　and　every　kind　of　crime；　but　it　is　also　capable　of　very　lofty　acts　of　devotion；　sacrifice；　and　disinterestedness；　of　acts　much　loftier　indeed　than　those　of　which　the　isolated　individual　is　capable。　　Appeals　to　sentiments　of　glory；　honour；　and　patriotism　are　particularly　likely　to　influence　the　individual　forming　part　of　a　crowd；　and　often　to　the　extent　of　obtaining　from　him　the　sacrifice　of　his　life。　　History　is　rich　in　examples　analogous　to　those　furnished　by　the　Crusaders　and　the　volunteers　of　1793。　　Collectivities　alone　are　capable　of　great　disinterestedness　and　great　devotion。　How　numerous　are　the　crowds　that　have　heroically　faced　death　for　beliefs；　ideas；　and　phrases　that　they　scarcely　understood！　　The　crowds　that　go　on　strike　do　so　far　more　in　obedience　to　an　order　than　to　obtain　an　increase　of　the　slender　salary　with　which　they　make　shift。　　Personal　interest　is　very　rarely　a　powerful　motive　force　with　crowds；　while　it　is　almost　the　exclusive　motive　of　the　conduct　of　the　isolated　individual。　　It　is　assuredly　not　self…interest　that　has　guided　crowds　in　so　many　wars；　incomprehensible　as　a　rule　to　their　intelligencewars　in　which　they　have　allowed　themselves　to　be　massacred　as　easily　as　the　larks　hypnotised　by　the　mirror　of　the　hunter。

Even　in　the　case　of　absolute　scoundrels　it　often　happens　that　the　mere　fact　of　their　being　in　a　crowd　endows　them　for　the　moment　with　very　strict　principles　of　morality。　　Taine　calls　attention　to　the　fact　that　the　perpetrators　of　the　September　massacres　deposited　on　the　table　of　the　committees　the　pocket…books　and　jewels　they　had　found　on　their　victims；　and　with　which　they　could　easily　have　been　able　to　make　away。　　The　howling；　swarming；　ragged　crowd　which　invaded　the　Tuileries　during　the　revolution　of　1848　did　not　lay　hands　on　any　of　the　objects　that　excited　its　astonishment；　and　one　of　which　would　have　meant　bread　for　many　days。

This　moralisation　of　the　individual　by　the　crowd　is　not　certainly　a　constant　rule；　but　it　is　a　rule　frequently　observed。　　It　is　even　observed　in　circumstances　much　less　grave　than　those　I　have　just　cited。　　I　have　remarked　that　in　the　theatre　a　crowd　exacts　from　the　hero　of　the　piece　exaggerated　virtues；　and　it　is　a　commonplace　observation　that　an　assembly；　even　though　composed　of　inferior　elements；　shows　itself　as　a　rule　very　prudish。　　The　debauchee；　the　souteneur；　the　rough　often　break　out　into　murmurs　at　a　slightly　risky　scene　or　expression；　though　they　be　very　harmless　in　comparison　with　their　customary　conversation。

If；　then；　crowds　often　abandon　themselves　to　low　instincts；　they　also　set　the　example　at　times　of　acts　of　lofty　morality。　　If　disinterestedness；　resignation；　and　absolute　devotion　to　a　real　or　chimerical　ideal　are　moral　virtues；　it　may　be　said　that　crowds　often　possess　these　virtues　to　a　degree　rarely　attained　by　the　wisest　philosophers。　　Doubtless　they　practice　them　unconsciously；　but　that　is　of　small　import。　　We　should　not　complain　too　much　that　crowds　are　more　especially　guided　by　unconscious　considerations　and　are　not　given　to　reasoning。　　Had　they；　in　certain　cases；　reasoned　and　consulted　their　immediate　interests；　it　is　possible　that　no　civilisation　would　have　grown　up　on　our　planet　and　humanity　would　have　had　no　history。



CHAPTER　III

THE　IDEAS；　REASONING　POWER；　AND　IMAGINATION　OF　CROWDS

1。　THE　IDEAS　OF　CROWDS。　　Fundamental　and　accessory　ideasHow　contradictory　ideas　may　exist　simultaneouslyThe　transformation　that　must　be　undergone　by　lofty　ideas　before　they　are　accessible　to　crowds　The　social　influence　of　ideas　is　independent　of　the　degree　of　truth　they　may　contain。　　　2。　THE　REASONING　POWER　OF　CROWDS。　　Crowds　are　not　to　be　influenced　by　reasoningThe　reasoning　of　crowds　is　always　of　a　very　inferior　orderThere　is　only　the　appearance　of　analogy　or　succession　in　the　ideas　they　associate。　　　3。　THE　IMAGINATION　OF　CROWDS。　Strength　of　the　imagination　of　crowdsCrowds　think　in　images；　and　these　images　succeed　each　other　without　any　connecting　linkCrowds　are　especially　impressed　by　the　marvellousLegends　and　the　marvellous　are　the　real　pillars　of　civilisationThe　popular　imagination　has　always　been　the　basis　of　the　power　of　statesmenThe　manner　in　which　facts　capable　of　striking　the　imagination　of　crowds　present　themselves　for　observation。


1。　THE　IDEAS　OF　CROWDS

WHEN　studying　in　a　preceding　work　the　part　played　by　ideas　in　the　evolution　of　nations；　we　showed　that　every　civilisation　is　the　outcome　of　a　small　number　of　fundamental　ideas　that　are　very　rarely　renewed。　　We　showed　how　these　ideas　are　implanted　in　the　minds　of　crowds；　with　what　difficulty　the　process　is　effected；　and　the　power　possessed　by　the　ideas　in　question　when　once　it　has　been　accomplished。　　Finally　we　saw　that　great　historical　perturbations　are　the　result；　as　a　rule；　of　changes　in　these　fundamental　ideas。

Having　treated　this　subject　at　sufficient　length；　I　shall　not　return　to　it　now；　but　shall　confine　myself　to　saying　a　few　words　on　the　subject　of　such　ideas　as　are　accessible　to　crowds；　and　of　the　forms　under　which　they　conceive　them。

They　may　be　divided　into　two　classes。　　In　one　we　shall　place　accidental　and　passing　ideas　created　by　the　influences　of　the　moment：　infatuation　for　an　individual　or　a　doctrine；　for　instance。　　In　the　other　will　be　classed　the　fundamental　ideas；　to　which　the　environment；　the　laws　of　heredity　and　public　opinion　give　a　very　great　stability；　such　ideas　are　the　religious　beliefs　of　the　past　and　the　social　and　democratic　ideas　of　to…day。

These　fundamental　ideas　resemble　the　volume　of　the　water　of　a　stream　slowly　pursuing　its　course；　the　transitory　ideas　are　like　the　small　waves；　for　ever　changing；　which　agitate　its　surface；　and　are　more　visible　than　the　progress　of　the　stream　itself　although　without　real　importance。

At　the　present　day　the　great　fundamental　ideas　which　were　the　mainstay　of　our　fathers　are　tottering　more　and　more。　　They　have　lost　all　solidity；　and　at　the　same　time　the　institutions　resting　upon　them　are　severely　shaken。　　Every　day　there　are　formed　a　great　many　of　those　transitory　minor　ideas　of　which　I　have　just　been　speaking；　but　very　few　of　them　to　all　appearance　seem　endowed　with　vitality　and　destined　to　acquire　a　preponderating　influence。

Whatever　be　the　ideas　suggested　to　crowds　they　can　only　exercise　effective　influence　on　condition　that　they　assume　a　very　absolute；　uncompromising；　and　simple　shape。　　They　present　themselves　then　in　the　guise　of　images；　and　are　only　accessible　to　the　masses　under　this　form。　　These　imagelike　ideas　are　not　connected　by　any　logical　bond　of　analogy　or　succession；　and　may　take　each　other's　place　like　the　slides　of　a　magic…lantern　which　the　operator　withdraws　from　the　groove　in　which　they　were　placed　one　above　the　other。　　This　explains　how　it　is　that　the　most　contradictory　ideas　may　be　seen　to　be　simultaneously　current　in　crowds。　　According　to　the　chances　of　the　moment；　a　crowd　will　come　under　the　influence　of　one　of　the　various　ideas　stored　up　in　its　understanding；　and　is　capable；　in　consequence；　of　committing　the　most　dissimilar　acts。　　Its　complete　lack　of　the　critical　spirit　does　not　allow　of　its　perceiving　these　contradictions。

This　phenomenon　is　not　peculiar　to　crowds。　　It　is　to　be　observed　in　many　isolated　individuals；　not　only　among　primitive　beings；　but　in　the　case　of　all　thosethe　fervent　sectaries　of　a　religious　faith；　for　instancewho　by　one　side　or　another　of　their　intelligence　are　akin　to　primitive　beings。　　I　have　observed　its　presence　to　a　curious　extent　in　the　case　of　educated　Hindoos　brought　up　at　our　European　universities　and　having　taken　their　degree。　　A　number　of　Western　ideas　had　been　superposed　on　their　unchangeable　and　fundamental　hereditary　or　social　ideas。　According　to　the　chances　of　the　moment；　the　one　or　the　other　set　of　ideas　showed　themselves　each　with　their　special　accompaniment　of　acts　or　utterances；　the　same　individual　presenting　in　this　way　the　most　flagrant　contradictions。　　These　contradictions　are　more　apparent　than　real；　for　it　is　only　hereditary　ideas　that　have　sufficient　influence　over　the　isolated　individual　to　become　motives　of　conduct。　　It　is　only　when；　as　the　result　of　the　intermingling　of　different　races；　a　man　is　placed　between　different　hereditary　tendencies　that　his　acts　from　one　moment　to　another　may　be　really　entirely　contradictory。　　It　would　be　useless　to　insist　here　on　these　phenomena；　although　their　psychological　importance　is　capital。　　I　am　of　opinion　that　at　least　ten　years　of　travel　and　observation　would　be　necessary　to　arrive　at　a　comprehension　of　them。

Ideas　being　only　accessible　to　crowds　after　having　assumed　a　very　simple　shape　must　often　undergo　the　most　thoroughgoing　transformations　to　become　popular。　　It　is　especially　when　we　are　dealing　with　somewhat　lofty　philosophic　or　scientific　ideas　that　we　see　how　far…reaching　are　the　modifications　they　require　in　order　to　lower　them　to　the　level　of　the　intelligence　of　crowds。　These　modifications　are　dependent　on　the　nature　of　the　crowds；　or　of　the　race　to　which　the　crowds　belong；　but　their　tendency　is　always　belittling　and　in　the