the man versus the state-第28节

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quantity；　no　one　will　agree　to　take　any　further　quantity　on　terms　that　yield　an　adequate　money　equivalent。　And　so　there　is　prevented　a　useless　expenditure　of　labour　in　producing　that　which　society　does　not　want。　　　　　　Lastly；　we　have　to　note　the　still　more　significant　fact　that　the　condition　under　which　only　any　specialized　group　of　workers　can　grow　when　the　community　needs　more　of　its　particular　kind　of　work；　is　that　contracts　shall　be　free　and　fulfilment　of　them　enforced。　If　when；　from　lack　of　material；　Lancashire　failed　to　supply　the　usual　quantity　of　cotton…goods；　there　had　been　such　interference　with　contracts　as　prevented　Yorkshire　from　asking　a　greater　price　for　its　woollens；　which　it　was　enabled　to　do　by　the　greater　demand　for　them；　there　would　have　been　no　temptation　to　put　more　capital　into　the　woollen　manufacture；　no　increase　in　the　amount　of　machinery　and　number　of　artizans　employed；　and　no　increase　of　woollens：　the　consequence　being　that　the　whole　community　would　have　suffered　from　not　having　deficient　cottons　replaced　by　extra　woollens。　What　serious　injury　may　result　to　a　nation　if　its　members　are　hindered　from　contracting　with　one　another；　was　well　shown　in　the　contrast　between　England　and　France　in　respect　of　railways。　Here；　though　obstacles　were　at　first　raised　by　classes　predominant　in　the　legislature；　the　obstacles　were　not　such　as　prevented　capitalists　from　investing；　engineers　from　furnishing　directive　skill；　or　contractors　from　undertaking　works；　and　the　high　interest　originally　obtained　on　investments；　the　great　profits　made　by　contractors；　and　the　large　payments　received　by　engineers；　led　to　that　drafting　of　money；　energy；　and　ability；　into　railway…making；　which　rapidly　developed　our　railway…system；　to　the　enormous　increase　of　our　national　prosperity。　But　when　M。　Thiers；　then　Minister　of　Public　Works；　came　over　to　inspect；　and　having　been　taken　about　by　Mr　Vignoles；　said　to　him　when　leaving：　〃I　do　not　think　railways　are　suited　to　France；〃（31*）　there　resulted；　from　the　consequent　policy　of　hindering　free　contract；　a　delay　of　〃eight　or　ten　years〃　in　that　material　progress　which　France　experienced　when　railways　were　made。　　　　　　What　do　all　these　facts　mean？　They　mean　that　for　the　healthful　activity　and　due　proportioning　of　those　industries；　occupations；　professions；　which　maintain　and　aid　the　life　of　a　society；　there　must；　in　the　first　place；　be　few　restrictions　on　men's　liberties　to　make　agreements　with　one　another；　and　there　must；　in　the　second　place；　be　an　enforcement　of　the　agreements　which　they　do　make。　As　we　have　seen；　the　checks　naturally　arising　to　each　man's　actions　when　men　become　associated；　are　those　only　which　result　from　mutual　limitation；　and　there　consequently　can　be　no　resulting　check　to　the　contracts　they　voluntarily　make：　interference　with　these　is　interference　with　those　rights　to　free　action　which　remain　to　each　when　the　rights　of　others　are　fully　recognized。　And　then；　as　we　have　seen；　enforcement　of　their　rights　implies　enforcement　of　contracts　made；　since　breach　of　contract　is　indirect　aggression。　If；　when　a　customer　on　one　side　of　the　counter　asks　a　shopkeeper　on　the　other　for　a　shilling's　worth　of　his　goods；　and；　while　the　shopkeeper's　back　is　turned；　walks　off　with　the　goods　without　leaving　the　shilling　he　tacitly　contracted　to　give；　his　act　differs　in　no　essential　way　from　robbery。　In　each　such　case　the　individual　injured　is　deprived　of　something　he　possessed；　without　receiving　the　equivalent　something　bargained　for；　and　is　in　the　state　of　having　expended　his　labour　without　getting　benefit　　has　had　an　essential　condition　to　the　maintenance　of　life　infringed。　　　　　　Thus；　then；　it　results　that　to　recognize　and　enforce　the　rights　of　individuals；　is　at　the　same　time　to　recognize　and　enforce　the　conditions　to　a　normal　social　life。　There　is　one　vital　requirement　for　both。　

Before　turning　to　those　corollaries　which　have　practical　applications；　let　us　observe　how　the　special　conclusions　drawn　converge　to　the　one　general　conclusion　originally　foreshadowed　　glancing　at　them　in　reversed　order。　　　　　　We　have　just　found　that　the　pre…requisite　to　individual　life　is　in　a　double　sense　the　pre…requisite　to　social　life。　The　life　of　a　society；　in　whichever　of　two　senses　conceived；　depends　on　maintenance　of　individual　rights。　If　it　is　nothing　more　than　the　sum　of　the　lives　of　citizens；　this　implication　is　obvious。　If　it　consists　of　those　many　unlike　activities　which　citizens　carry　on　in　mutual　dependence；　still　this　aggregate　impersonal　life　rises　or　falls　according　as　the　rights　of　individuals　are　enforced　or　denied。　　　　　　Study　of　men's　politico…ethical　ideas　and　sentiments；　leads　to　allied　conclusions。　Primitive　peoples　of　various　types　show　us　that　before　governments　exist；　memorial　customs　recognize　private　claims　and　justify　maintenance　of　them。　Codes　of　law　independently　evolved　by　different　nations；　agree　in　forbidding　certain　trespasses　on　the　persons；　properties；　and　liberties　of　citizens；　and　their　correspondences　imply；　not　an　artificial　source　for　individual　rights；　but　a　natural　source。　Along　with　social　development；　the　formulating　in　law　of　the　rights　pre…established　by　custom；　becomes　more　definite　and　elaborate。　At　the　same　time；　Government　undertakes　to　an　increasing　extent　the　business　of　enforcing　them。　While　it　has　been　becoming　a　better　protector；　Government　has　been　becoming　less　aggressive　has　more　and　more　diminished　its　intrusions　on　men's　spheres　of　private　action。　And；　lastly；　as　in　past　times　laws　were　avowedly　modified　to　fit　better　with　current　ideas　of　equity；　so　now；　law…reformers　are　guided　by　ideas　of　equity　which　are　not　derived　from　law　but　to　which　law　has　to　conform。　　　　　　Here；　then；　we　have　a　politico…ethical　theory　justified　alike　by　analysis　and　by　history。　What　have　we　against　it？　A　fashionable　counter…theory　which　proves　to　be　unjustifiable。　On　the　one　hand；　while　we　find　that　individual　life　and　social　life　both　imply　maintenance　of　the　natural　relation　between　efforts　and　benefits；　we　also　find　that　this　natural　relation；　recognized　before　Government　existed；　has　been　all　along　asserting　and　re…asserting　itself；　and　obtaining　better　recognition　in　codes　of　law　and　systems　of　ethics。　On　the　other　hand；　those　who；　denying　natural　rights；　commit　themselves　to　the　assertion　that　rights　are　artificially　created　by　law；　are　not　only　flatly　contradicted　by　facts；　but　their　assertion　is　self…destructive：　the　endeavour　to　substantiate　it；　when　challenged；　involves　them　in　manifold　absurdities。　　　　　　Nor　is　this　all。　The　re…institution　of　a　vague　popular　conception　in　a　definite　form　on　a　scientific　basis；　leads　us　to　a　rational　view　of　the　relation　between　the　wills　of　majorities　and　minorities。　It　turns　out　that　those　co…operations　in　which　all　can　voluntarily　unite；　and　in　the　caring　on　of　which　the　will　of　the　majority　is　rightly　supreme；　are　co…operations　for　maintaining　the　conditions　requisite　to　individual　and　social　life。　Defence　of　the　society　as　a　whole　against　eternal　invaders；　has　for　its　remote　end　to　preserve　each　citizen　in　possession　of　such　means　as　he　has　for　satisfying　his　desires；　and　in　possession　of　such　liberty　as　he　has　for　getting　further　means。　And　defence　of　each　citizen　against　internal　invaders；　from　murderers　down　to　those　who　inflict　nuisances　on　their　neighbours；　has　obviously　the　like　end　　an　end　desired　by　every　one　save　the　canal　and　disorderly。　Hence　it　follows　that　for　maintenance　of　this　vital　principle；　alike　of　individual　life　and　social　life；　subordination　of　minority　to　majority　is　legitimate；　as　implying　only　such　a　trenching　on　the　freedom　and　property　of　each；　as　is　requisite　for　the　better　protecting　of　his　freedom　and　property。　At　the　same　time　it　follows　that　such　subordination　is　not　legitimate　beyond　this；　since；　implying　as　it　does　a　greater　aggression　upon　the　individual　than　is　requisite　for　protecting　him；　it　involves　a　breach　of　the　vital　principle　which　is　to　be　maintained。　　Thus　we　come　round　again　to　the　proposition　that　the　assumed　divine　right　of　parliaments；　and　the　implied　divine　right　of　majorities；　are　superstitions。　While　men　have　abandoned　the　old　theory　respecting　the　source　of　State…authority；　they　have　retained　a　belief　in　that　unlimited　extent　of　State…authority　which　rightly　accompanied　the　old　theory；　but　does　not　rightly　accompany　the　new　one。　Unrestricted　power　over　subjects；　rationally　ascribed　to　the　ruling　man　when　he　was　held　to　be　a　deputy…god；　is　now　ascribed　to　the　ruling　body；　the　deputy…godhood　of　which　nobody　asserts。　　　　　　Opponents　will；　possibly；　contend　that　discussions　about　the　origin　and　limits　of　governmental　authority　are　mere　pedantries。　〃Government；〃　they　may　perhaps　say；　〃is　bound　to　use　all　the　means　it　has；　or　can　get；　for　furthering　the　general　happiness。　Its　aim　must　be　utility；　and　it　is　warranted　in　employing　whatever　measures　are　needful　for　achieving　useful　ends。　The　welfare　of　the　people　is　the　supreme　law；　and　legislators　are　not　to　be　deterred　from　obeying　that　law　by　questions　concerning　the　source　and　range　of　their　power。〃　Is　there　really　an　escape　here？　or　may　this　opening　be　effectually　closed？　　　　　　The　essential　question　raised　is　the　truth　of　the　utilitarian　theory