the man versus the state-第27节

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！


hen　we　study　the　doings　of　the　uncivilized。　In　its　vaguest　form；　mutual　limitation　of　spheres　of　action；　and　the　ideas　and　sentiments　associated　with　it；　are　seen　in　the　relations　of　groups　to　one　another。　Habitually　there　come　to　be　established；　certain　bounds　to　the　territories　within　which　each　tribe　obtains　its　livelihood；　and　these　bounds；　when　not　respected；　are　defended。　Among　the　Wood…Veddahs；　who　have　no　political　organization；　the　small　clans　have　their　respective　portions　of　forest；　and　〃these　conventional　allotments　are　always　honourably　recognized。〃（24*）　Of　the　ungoverned　tribes　of　Tasmania；　we　are　told　that　〃their　hunting　grounds　were　all　determined；　and　trespassers　were　liable　to　attack。〃（25*）　And；　manifestly；　the　quarrels　caused　among　tribes　by　intrusions　on　one　another's　territories；　tend；　in　the　long　run；　to　fix　bounds　and　to　give　a　certain　sanction　to　them。　As　with　each　inhabited　area；　so　with　each　inhabiting　group。　A　death　in　one；　rightly　or　wrongly　ascribed　to　somebody　in　another；　prompts　〃the　sacred　duty　of　blood…revenge；〃　and　though　retaliations　are　thus　made　chronic；　some　restraint　is　put　on　new　aggressions。　Like　causes　worked　like　effects　in　those　early　stages　of　civilized　societies；　during　which　families　or　clans；　rather　than　individuals；　were　the　political　units；　and　during　which　each　family　or　clan　had　to　maintain　itself　and　its　possessions　against　others　such。　This　mutual　restraint；　which　in　the　nature　of　things　arises　between　small　communities；　similarly　arises　between　individuals　in　each　community；　and　the　ideas　and　usages　appropriate　to　the　one　are　more　or　less　appropriate　to　the　other。　Though　within　each　group　there　is　ever　a　tendency　for　the　stronger　to　aggress　on　the　weaker；　yet；　in　most　cases；　consciousness　of　the　evils　resulting　from　aggressive　conduct　serves　to　restrain。　Everywhere　among　primitive　peoples；　trespasses　are　followed　by　counter…trespasses。　Says　Turner　of　the　Tannese；　〃adultery　and　some　other　crimes　are　kept　in　check　by　the　fear　of　club…law。〃（26*）　Fitzroy　tells　us　that　the　Patagonian；　〃if　he　does　not　injure　or　offend　his　neighbour；　is　not　interfered　with　by　others：〃（27*）　personal　vengeance　being　the　penalty　for　injury。　We　read　of　the　Uaupes　that　〃they　have　very　little　law　of　any　kind；　but　what　they　have　is　of　strict　retaliation；　an　eye　for　an　eye　and　a　tooth　for　a　tooth。〃（28*）　And　that　the　lex　talionis　tends　to　establish　a　distinction　between　what　each　member　of　the　community　may　safely　do　and　what　he　may　not　safely　do；　and　consequently　to　give　sanctions　to　actions　within　a　certain　range　but　not　beyond　that　range；　is　obvious。　Though；　says　Schoolcraft　of　the　Chippewayans；　they　〃have　no　regular　government；　as　every　man　is　lord　in　his　own　family；　they　are　influenced　more　or　less　by　certain　principles　which　conduce　to　their　general　benefit：〃（29*）　one　of　the　principles　named　being　recognition　of　private　property。　　　　　　How　mutual　limitation　of　activities　originates　the　ideas　and　sentiments　implied　by　the　phrase　〃natural　rights；〃　we　are　shown　most　distinctly　by　the　few　peaceful　tribes　which　have　either　nominal　governments　or　none　at　all。　Beyond　those　facts　which　illustrate　scrupulous　regard　for　one　another's　claims　among　the　Todas；　Santals；　Lepchas；　Bodo；　Chakmas；　Jakuns；　Arafuras；　etc。；　we　have　the　fact　that　the　utterly　uncivilized　Wood…Veddahs；　without　any　social　organization　at　all；　〃think　it　perfectly　inconceivable　that　any　person　should　ever　take　that　which　does　not　belong　to　him；　or　strike　his　fellow；　or　say　anything　that　is　untrue。〃（30*）　Thus　it　becomes　clear；　alike　from　analysis　of　causes　and　observation　of　facts；　that　while　the　positive　element　in　the　right　to　carry　on　life…sustaining　activities；　originates　from　the　laws　of　life；　that　negative　element　which　gives　ethical　character　to　it；　originates　from　the　conditions　produced　by　social　aggregation。　　　　　　So　alien　to　the　truth；　indeed；　is　the　alleged　creation　of　rights　by　government；　that；　contrariwise；　rights　having　been　established　more　or　less　clearly　before　government　arises；　become　obscured　as　government　develops　along　with　that　militant　activity　which；　both　by　the　taking　of　slaves　and　the　establishment　of　ranks；　produces　status；　and　the　recognition　of　rights　begins　again　to　get　definiteness　only　as　fast　as　militancy　ceases　to　be　chronic　and　governmental　power　declines。　

When　we　turn　from　the　life　of　the　individual　to　the　life　of　the　society；　the　same　lesson　is　taught　us。　　　　　　Though　mere　love　of　companionship　prompts　primitive　men　to　live　in　groups；　yet　the　chief　prompter　is　experience　of　the　advantages　to　be　derived　from　co…operation。　On　what　condition　only　can　co…operation　arise？　Evidently　on　condition　that　those　who　join　their　efforts　severally　gain　by　doing　so。　If；　as　in　the　simplest　cases；　they　unite　to　achieve　something　which　each　by　himself　cannot　achieve；　or　can　achieve　less　readily；　it　must　be　on　the　tacit　understanding；　either　that　they　shall　share　the　benefit　（as　when　game　is　caught　by　a　party　of　them）　or　that　if　one　reaps　all　the　benefit　now　（as　in　building　a　hut　or　clearing　a　plot）　the　others　shall　severally　reap　equivalent　benefits　in　their　turns。　When；　instead　of　efforts　joined　in　doing　the　same　thing；　different　things　are　effected　by　them　　when　division　of　labour　arises；　with　accompanying　barter　of　products；　the　arrangement　implies　that　each；　in　return　for　something　which　he　has　in　superfluous　quantity；　gets　an　approximate　equivalent　of　something　which　he　wants。　If　he　hands　over　the　one　and　does　not　get　the　other；　future　proposals　to　exchange　will　meet　with　no　response。　There　will　be　a　reversion　to　that　rudest　condition　in　which　each　makes　everything　for　himself。　Hence　the　possibility　of　co…operation　depends　on　fulfilment　of　contract；　tacit　or　overt。　　　　　　Now　this　which　we　see　must　hold　of　the　very　first　step　towards　that　industrial　organization　by　which　the　life　of　a　society　is　maintained；　must　hold　more　or　less　fully　throughout　its　development。　Though　the　militant　type　of　organization；　with　its　system　of　status　produced　by　chronic　war；　greatly　obscures　these　relations　of　contract；　yet　they　remain　partially　in　force。　They　still　hold　between　freemen；　and　between　the　heads　of　those　small　groups　which　form　the　units　of　early　societies；　and；　in　a　measure；　they　still　hold　within　these　small　groups　themselves；　since　survival　of　them　as　groups；　implies　such　recognition　of　the　claims　of　their　members；　even　when　slaves；　that　in　return　for　their　labours　they　get　sufficiencies　of　food；　clothing；　and　protection。　And　when；　with　diminution　of　warfare　and　growth　of　trade；　voluntary　co…operation　more　and　more　replaces　compulsory　co…operation；　and　the　carrying　on　of　social　life　by　exchange　under　agreement；　partially　suspended　for　a　time；　gradually　re…establishes　itself；　its　re…establishment　makes　possible　that　vast　elaborate　industrial　organization　by　which　a　great　nation　is　sustained。　　　　　　For　in　proportion　as　contracts　are　unhindered　and　the　performance　of　them　certain；　the　growth　is　great　and　the　social　life　active。　It　is　not　now　by　one　or　other　of　two　individuals　who　contract；　that　the　evil　effects　of　breach　of　contract　are　experienced。　In　an　advanced　society；　they　are　experienced　by　entire　classes　of　producers　and　distributors；　which　have　arisen　through　division　of　labour；　and；　eventually；　they　are　experienced　by　everybody。　Ask　on　what　condition　it　is　that　Birmingham　devotes　itself　to　manufacturing　hardware；　or　part　of　Staffordshire　to　making　pottery；　or　Lancashire　to　weaving　cotton。　Ask　how　the　rural　people　who　here　grow　wheat　and　there　pasture　cattle；　find　it　possible　to　occupy　themselves　in　their　special　businesses。　These　groups　can　severally　thus　act　only　if　each　gets　from　the　others　in　exchange　for　its　own　surplus　product；　due　shares　of　their　surplus　products。　No　longer　directly　effected　by　barter；　this　obtainment　of　their　respective　shares　of　one　another's　products　is　indirectly　effected　by　money；　and　if　we　ask　how　each　division　of　producers　gets　its　due　amount　of　the　required　money；　the　answer　is　　by　fulfilment　of　contract。　If　Leeds　makes　woollens　and　does　not；　by　fulfilment　of　contract；　receive　the　means　of　obtaining　from　agricultural　districts　the　needful　quantity　of　food；　it　must　starve；　and　stop　producing　woollens。　If　South　Wales　smelts　iron　and　there　comes　no　equivalent　agreed　upon；　enabling　it　to　get　fabrics　for　clothing；　its　industry　must　cease。　And　so　throughout；　in　general　and　in　detail。　That　mutual　dependence　of　parts　which　we　see　in　social　organization；　as　in　individual　organization；　is　possible　only　on　condition　that　while　each　part　does　the　particular　kind　of　work　it　has　become　adjusted　to；　it　receives　its　proportion　of　those　materials　required　for　repair　and　growth；　which　all　the　other　parts　have　joined　to　produce：　such　proportion　being　settled　by　bargaining。　Moreover；　it　is　by　fulfilment　of　contract　that　there　is　effected　a　balancing　of　all　the　various　products　to　the　various　needs　　the　large　manufacture　of　knives　and　the　small　manufacture　of　lancets；　the　great　growth　of　wheat　and　the　little　growth　of　mustard…seed。　The　check　on　undue　production　of　each　commodity；　results　from　finding　that　after　a　certain　quantity；　no　one　will　agree　to　take　any　further　quantity　on　terms　that　yield　an　adequate　money　equiv