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their safety depended upon their doing so; and that their own

militia was altogether incapable of resisting the attack of such

an army。

     The soldiers of a standing army; though they may never have

seen an enemy; yet have frequently appeared to possess all the

courage of veteran troops and the very moment that they took the

field to have been fit to face the hardiest and most experienced

veterans。 In 1756; when the Russian army marched into Poland; the

valour of the Russian soldiers did not appear inferior to that of

the Prussians; at that time supposed to be the hardiest and most

experienced veterans in Europe。 The Russian empire; however; had

enjoyed a profound peace for near twenty years before; and could

at that time have very few soldiers who had ever seen an enemy。

When the Spanish war broke out in 1739; England had enjoyed a

profound peace for about eight…and…twenty years。 The valour of

her soldiers; however; far from being corrupted by that long

peace; was never more distinguished than in the attempt upon

Carthagena; the first unfortunate exploit of that unfortunate

war。 In a long peace the generals; perhaps; may sometimes forget

their skill; but; where a well…regulated standing army has been

kept up; the soldiers seem never to forget their valour。

     When a civilised nation depends for its defence upon a

militia; it is at all times exposed to be conquered by any

barbarous nation which happens to be in its neighbourhood。 The

frequent conquests of all the civilised countries in Asia by the

Tartars sufficiently demonstrates the natural superiority which

the militia of a barbarous has over that of a civilised nation。 A

well…regulated standing army is superior to every militia。 Such

an army; as it can best be maintained by an opulent and civilised

nation; so it can alone defend such a nation against the invasion

of a poor and barbarous neighbour。 It is only by means of a

standing army; therefore; that the civilization of any country

can be perpetuated; or even preserved for any considerable time。

     As it is only by means of a well…regulated standing army

that a civilised country can be defended; so it is only by means

of it that a barbarous country can be suddenly and tolerably

civilised。 A standing army establishes; with an irresistible

force; the law of the sovereign through the remotest provinces of

the empire; and maintains some degree of regular government in

countries which could not otherwise admit of any。 Whoever

examines; with attention; the improvements which Peter the Great

introduced into the Russian empire; will find that they almost

all resolve themselves into the establishment of a well regulated

standing army。 It is the instrument which executes and maintains

all his other regulations。 That degree of order and internal

peace which that empire has ever since enjoyed is altogether

owing to the influence of that army。

     Men of republican principles have been jealous of a standing

army as dangerous to liberty。 It certainly is so wherever the

interest of the general and that of the principal officers are

not necessarily connected with the support of the constitution of

the state。 The standing army of Caesar destroyed the Roman

republic。 The standing army of Cromwell turned the Long

Parliament out of doors。 But where the sovereign is himself the

general; and the principal nobility and gentry of the country the

chief officers of the army; where the military force is placed

under the command of those who have the greatest interest in the

support of the civil authority; because they have themselves the

greatest share of that authority; a standing army can never be

dangerous to liberty。 On the contrary; it may in some cases be

favourable to liberty。 The security which it gives to the

sovereign renders unnecessary that troublesome jealousy; which;

in some modern republics; seems to watch over the minutest

actions; and to be at all times ready to disturb the peace of

every citizen。 Where the security of the magistrate; though

supported by the principal people of the country; is endangered

by every popular discontent; where a small tumult is capable of

bringing about in a few hours a great revolution; the whole

authority of government must be employed to suppress and punish

every murmur and complaint against it。 To a sovereign; on the

contrary; who feels himself supported; not only by the natural

aristocracy of the country; but by a well…regulated standing

army; the rudest; the most groundless; and the most licentious

remonstrances can give little disturbance。 He can safely pardon

or neglect them; and his consciousness of his own superiority

naturally disposes him to do so。 That degree of liberty which

approaches to licentiousness can be tolerated only in countries

where the sovereign is secured by a well…regulated standing army。

It is in such countries only that the public safety does not

require that the sovereign should be trusted with any

discretionary power for suppressing even the impertinent

wantonness of this licentious liberty。

     The first duty of the sovereign; therefore; that of

defending the society from the violence and injustice of other

independent societies; grows gradually more and more expensive as

the society advances in civilization。 The military force of the

society; which originally cost the sovereign no expense either in

time of peace or in time of war; must; in the progress of

improvement; first be maintained by him in time of war; and

afterwards even in time of peace。

     The great change introduced into the art of war by the

invention of firearms has enhanced still further both the expense

of exercising and disciplining any particular number of soldiers

in time of peace; and that of employing them in time of war。 Both

their arms and their ammunition are become more expensive。 A

musket is a more expensive machine than a javelin or a bow and

arrows; a cannon or a mortar than a balista or a catapulta。 The

powder which is spent in a modern review is lost irrecoverably;

and occasions a very considerable expense。 The javeline and

arrows which were thrown or shot in an ancient one could easily

be picked up again; and were besides of very little value。 The

cannon and the mortar are not only much dearer; but much heavier

machines than the balista or catapulta; and require a greater

expense; not only to prepare them for the field; but to carry

them to it。 As the superiority of the modern artillery too over

that of the ancients is very great; it has become much more

difficult; and consequently much more expensive; to fortify a

town so as to resist even for a few weeks the attack of that

superior artillery。 In modern times many different causes

contribute to render the defence of the society more expensive。

The unavoidable effects of the natural progress of improvement

have; in this respect; been a good deal enhanced by a great

revolution in the art of war; to which a mere accident; the

invention of gunpowder; seems to have given occasion。

     In modern war the great expense of firearms gives an evident

advantage to the nation which can best afford that expense; and

consequently to an opulent and civilised over a poor and

barbarous nation。 In ancient times the opulent and civilised

found it difficult to defend themselves against the poor and

barbarous nations。 In modern times the poor and barbarous find it

difficult to defend themselves against the opulent and civilised。

The invention of firearms; an invention which at first sight

appears to be so pernicious; is certainly favourable both to the

permanency and to the extension of civilization。

                             PART 2

                  Of the Expense of Justice 

     THE second duty of the sovereign; that of protecting; as far

as possible; every member of the society from the injustice or

oppression of every other member of it; or the duty of

establishing an exact administration of justice; requires; too;

very different degrees of expense in the different periods of

society。

     Among nations of hunters; as there is scarce any property;

or at least none that exceeds the value of two or three days'

labour; so there is seldom any established magistrate or any

regular administration of justice。 Men who have no property can

injure one another only in their persons or reputations。 But when

one man kills; wounds; beats; or defames another; though he to

whom the injury is done suffers; he who does it receives no

benefit。 It is otherwise with the injuries to property。 The

benefit of the person who does the injury is often equal to the

loss of him who suffers it。 Envy; malice; or resentment are the

only passions which can prompt one man to injure another in his

person or reputation。 But the greater part of men are not very

frequently under the influence of those passions; and the very

worst of men are so only occasionally

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