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necessary for supporting that higher dignity。 We naturally expect

more splendour in the court of a king than in the mansion…house

of a doge or burgomaster。

                           CONCLUSION 

     The expense of defending the society; and that of supporting

the dignity of the chief magistrate; are both laid out for the

general benefit of the whole society。 It is reasonable;

therefore; that they should be defrayed by the general

contribution of the whole society; all the different members

contributing; as nearly as possible; in proportion to their

respective abilities。

     The expense of the administration of justice; too; may; no

doubt; be considered as laid out for the benefit of the whole

society。 There is no impropriety; therefore; in its being

defrayed by the general contribution of the whole society。 The

persons; however; who gave occasion to this expense are those

who; by their injustice in one way or another; make it necessary

to seek redress or protection from the courts of justice。 The

persons again most immediately benefited by this expense are

those whom the courts of justice either restore to their rights

or maintain in their rights。 The expense of the administration of

justice; therefore; may very properly be defrayed by the

particular contribution of one or other; or both; of those two

different sets of persons; according as different occasions may

require; that is; by the fees of court。 It cannot be necessary to

have recourse to the general contribution of the whole society;

except for the conviction of those criminals who have not

themselves any estate or fund sufficient for paying those fees。

     Those local or provincial expenses of which the benefit is

local or provincial (what is laid out; for example; upon the

police of a particular town or district) ought to be defrayed by

a local or provincial revenue; and ought to be no burden upon the

general revenue of the society。 It is unjust that the whole

society should contribute towards an expense of which the benefit

is confined to a part of the society。

     The expense of maintaining good roads and communications is;

no doubt; beneficial to the whole society; and may; therefore;

without any injustice。 be defrayed by the general contribution of

the whole society。 This expense; however; is most immediately and

directly beneficial to those who travel or carry goods from one

place to another; and to those who consume such goods。 The

turnpike tolls in England; and the duties called peages in other

countries; lay it altogether upon those two different sets of

people; and thereby discharge the general revenue of the society

from a very considerable burden。

     The expense of the institutions for education and religious

instruction is likewise; no doubt; beneficial to the whole

society; and may; therefore; without injustice; be defrayed by

the general contribution of the whole society。 This expense;

however; might perhaps with equal propriety; and even with some

advantage; be defrayed altogether by those who receive the

immediate benefit of such education and instruction; or by the

voluntary contribution of those who think they have occasion for

either the one or the other。

     When the institutions or public works which are beneficial

to the whole society either cannot be maintained altogether; or

are not maintained altogether by the contribution of such

particular members of the society as are most immediately

benefited by them; the deficiency must in most cases be made up

by the general contribution of the whole society。 The general

revenue of the society; over and above defraying the expense of

defending the society; and of supporting the dignity of the chief

magistrate; must make up for the deficiency of many particular

branches of revenue。 The sources of this general or public

revenue I shall endeavour to explain in the following chapter。

                            CHAPTER II   Of the Sources of the

General or Public Revenue of the Society 

     THE revenue which must defray; not only the expense of

defending the society and of supporting the dignity of the chief

magistrate; but all the other necessary expenses of government

for which the constitution of the state has not provided any

particular revenue; may be drawn either; first; from some fund

which peculiarly belongs to the sovereign or commonwealth; and

which is independent of the revenue of the people; or; secondly;

from the revenue of the people。

                             PART 1

      Of the Funds or Sources of Revenue which may peculiarly

               belong to the Sovereign or Commonwealth 

     THE funds or sources of revenue which may peculiarly belong

to the sovereign or commonwealth must consist either in stock or

in land。

     The sovereign; like any other owner of stock; may derive a

revenue from it; either by employing it himself; or by lending

it。 His revenue is in the one case profit; in the other interest。

     The revenue of a Tartar or Arabian chief consists in profit。

It arises principally from the milk and increase of his own herds

and flocks; of which he himself superintends the management; and

is the principal shepherd or herdsman of his own horde or tribe。

It is; however; in this earliest and rudest state of civil

government only that profit has ever made the principal part of

the public revenue of a monarchial state。

     Small republics have sometimes derived a considerable

revenue from the profit of mercantile projects。 The republic of

Hamburg is said to do so from the profits of a public wine cellar

and apothecary's shop。 The state cannot be very great of which

the sovereign has leisure to carry on the trade of a wine

merchant or apothecary。 The profit of a public bank has been a

source of revenue to more considerable states。 It has been so not

only to Hamburg; but to Venice and Amsterdam。 A revenue of this

kind has even by some people been thought not below the attention

of so great an empire as that of Great Britain。 Reckoning the

ordinary dividend of the Bank of England at five and a half per

cent and its capital at ten millions seven hundred and eighty

thousand pounds; the net annual profit; after paying the expense

of management; must amount; it is said; to five hundred and

ninety…two thousand nine hundred pounds。 Government; it is

pretended; could borrow this capital at three per cent interest;

and by taking the management of the bank into its own hands;

might make a clear profit of two hundred and sixty…nine thousand

five hundred pounds a year。 The orderly; vigilant; and

parsimonious administration of such aristocracies as those of

Venice and Amsterdam is extremely proper; it appears from

experience; for the management of a mercantile project of this

kind。 But whether such a government as that of England… which;

whatever may be its virtues; has never been famous for good

economy; which; in time of peace; has generally conducted itself

with the slothful and negligent profusion that is perhaps natural

to monarchies; and in time of war has constantly acted with all

the thoughtless extravagance that democracies are apt to fall

into… could be safely trusted with the management of such a

project; must at least be good deal more doubtful。

     The post office is properly a mercantile project。 The

government advances the expense of establishing the different

offices; and of buying or hiring the necessary horses or

carriages; and is repaid with a large profit by the duties upon

what is carried。 It is perhaps the only mercantile project which

has been successfully managed by; I believe; every sort of

government。 The capital to be advanced is not very considerable。

There is no mystery in the business。 The returns are not only

certain; but immediate。

     Princes; however; have frequently engaged in many other

mercantile projects; and have been willing; like private persons;

to mend their fortunes by becoming adventurers in the common

branches of trade。 They have scarce ever succeeded。 The profusion

with which the affairs of princes are always managed renders it

almost impossible that they should。 The agents of a prince regard

the wealth of their master as inexhaustible; are careless at what

price they buy; are careless at what price they sell; are

careless at what expense they transport his goods from one place

to another。 Those agents frequently live with the profusion of

princes; and sometimes too; in spite of that profusion; and by a

proper method of making up their accounts; acquire the fortunes

of princes。 It was thus; as we are told by Machiavel; that the

agents of Lorenzo of Medicis; not a prince of mean abilities;

carried on his trade。 The republic of Florence was several times

obliged to pay the debt into which their extravagance had

involved him。 He found it convenient; accordingly; to give up the

business of merchant; the business to which

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