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sometimes in the more artificial form of apologues; like what are

called the fables of Aesop; and sometimes in the more simple one

of apophthegms; or wise sayings; like the Proverbs of Solomon;

the verses of Theognis and Phocyllides; and some part of the

works of Hesiod。 They might continue in this manner for a long

time merely to multiply the number of those maxims of prudence

and morality; without even attempting to arrange them in any very

distinct or methodical order; much less to connect them together

by one or more general principles from which they were all

deducible; like effects from their natural causes。 The beauty of

a systematical arrangement of different observations connected by

a few common principles was first seen in the rude essays of

those ancient times towards a system of natural philosophy。

Something of the same kind was afterwards attempted in morals。

The maxims of common life were arranged in some methodical order;

and connected together by a few common principles; in the same

manner as they had attempted to arrange and connect the phenomena

of nature。 The science which pretends to investigate and explain

those connecting principles is what is properly called moral

philosophy。

     Different authors gave different systems both of natural and

moral philosophy。 But the arguments by which they supported those

different systems; for from being always demonstrations; were

frequently at best but very slender probabilities; and sometimes

mere sophisms; which had no other foundation but the inaccuracy

and ambiguity of common language。 Speculative systems have in all

ages of the world been adopted for reasons too frivolous to have

determined the judgment of any man of common sense in a matter of

the smallest pecuniary interest。 Gross sophistry has scarce ever

had any influence upon the opinions of mankind; except in matters

of philosophy and speculation; and in these it has frequently had

the greatest。 The patrons of each system of natural and moral

philosophy naturally endeavoured to expose the weakness of the

arguments adduced to support the systems which were opposite to

their own。 In examining those arguments; they were necessarily

led to consider the difference between a probable and a

demonstrative argument; between a fallacious and a conclusive

one: and Logic; or the science of the general principles of good

and bad reasoning; necessarily arose out of the observations

which a scrutiny of this kind gave occasion to。 Though in its

origin posterior both to physics and to ethics; it was commonly

taught; not indeed in all; but in the greater part of the ancient

schools of philosophy; previously to either of those sciences。

The student; it seems to have been thought; to understand well

the difference between good and bad reasoning before he was led

to reason upon subjects of so great importance。

     This ancient division of philosophy into three parts was in

the greater part of the universities of Europe changed for

another into five。

     In the ancient philosophy; whatever was taught concerning

the nature either of the human mind or of the Deity; made a part

of the system of physics。 Those beings; in whatever their essence

might be supposed to consist; were parts of the great system of

the universe; and parts; too; productive of the most important

effects。 Whatever human reason could either conclude or

conjecture concerning them; made; as it were; two chapters;

though no doubt two very important ones; of the science which

pretended to give an account of the origin and revolutions of the

great system of the universe。 But in the universities of Europe;

where philosophy was taught only as subservient to theology; it

was natural to dwell longer upon these two chapters than upon any

other of the science。 They were gradually more and more extended;

and were divided into many inferior chapters; till at last the

doctrine of spirits; of which so little can be known; came to

take up as much room in the system of philosophy as the doctrine

of bodies; of which so much can be known。 The doctrines

concerning those two subjects were considered as making two

distinct sciences。 What are called Metaphysics or Pneumatics were

set in opposition to Physics; and were cultivated not only as the

more sublime; but; for the purposes of a particular profession;

as the more useful science of the two。 The proper subject of

experiment and observation; a subject in which a careful

attention is capable of making so many useful discoveries; was

almost entirely neglected。 The subject in which; after a few very

simple and almost obvious truths; the most careful attention can

discover nothing but obscurity and uncertainty; and can

consequently produce nothing but subtleties and sophisms; was

greatly cultivated。

     When those two sciences had thus been set in opposition to

one another; the comparison between them naturally gave birth to

a third; to what was called Ontology; or the science which

treated of the qualities and attributes which were common to both

the subjects of the other two sciences。 But if subtleties and

sophisms composed the greater part of the Metaphysics or

Pneumatics of the schools; they composed the whole of this cobweb

science of Ontology; which was likewise sometimes called

Metaphysics。

     Wherein consisted the happiness and perfection of a man;

considered not only as an individual; but as the member of a

family; of a state; and of the great society of mankind; was the

object which the ancient moral philosophy proposed to

investigate。 In that philosophy the duties of human life were

treated as subservient to the happiness and perfection of human

life。 But when moral; as well as natural philosophy; came to be

taught only as subservient to theology; the duties of human life

were treated of as chiefly subservient to the happiness of a life

to come。 In the ancient philosophy the perfection of virtue was

represented as necessarily productive; to the person who

possessed it; of the most perfect happiness in this life。 In the

modern philosophy it was frequently represented as generally; or

rather as almost always; inconsistent with any degree of

happiness in this life; and heaven was to be earned only by

penance and mortification; by the austerities and abasement of a

monk; not by the liberal; generous; and spirited conduct of a

man。 Casuistry and an ascetic morality made up; in most cases;

the greater part of the moral philosophy of the schools。 By far

the most important of all the different branches of philosophy

became in this manner by far the most corrupted。

     Such; therefore; was the common course of philosophical

education in the greater part of the universities in Europe。

Logic was taught first: Ontology came in the second place:

Pneumatology; comprehending the doctrine concerning the nature of

the human soul and of the Deity; in the third: in the fourth

followed a debased system of moral philosophy which was

considered as immediately connected with the doctrines of

Pneumatology; with the immortality of the human soul; and with

the rewards and punishments which; from the justice of the Deity;

were to be expected in a life to come: a short and superficial

system of Physics usually concluded the course。

     The alterations which the universities of Europe thus

introduced into the ancient course of philosophy were all meant

for the education of ecclesiastics; and to render it a more

proper introduction to the study of theology。 But the additional

quantity of subtlety and sophistry; the casuistry and the ascetic

morality which those alterations introduced into it; certainly

did not render it more proper for the education of gentlemen or

men of the world; or more likely either to improve the

understanding; or to mend the heart。

     This course of philosophy is what still continues to be

taught in the greater part of the universities of Europe; with

more or less diligence; according as the constitution of each

particular university happens to render diligence more or less

necessary to the teachers。 In some of the richest and best

endowed universities; the tutors content themselves with teaching

a few unconnected shreds and parcels of this corrupted course;

and even these they commonly teach very negligently and

superficially。

     The improvements which; in modern times; have been made in

several different branches of philosophy have not; the greater

part of them; been made in universities; though some no doubt

have。 The greater part of universities have not even been very

forward to adopt those improvements after they were made; and

several of those learned societies have chosen to remain; for a

long time; the sanctuaries in which exploded systems and obsolete

prejudices found shelter and protection after they had been

hunted out of every other corner of the world。 In general; the

richest and best 

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