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life; but after twelve or thirteen years of age; provided the

master does his duty; force or restraint can scarce ever be

necessary to carry on any part of education。 Such is the

generosity of the greater part of young men; that; so far from

being disposed to neglect or despise the instructions of their

master; provided he shows some serious intention of being of use

to them; they are generally inclined to pardon a great deal of

incorrectness in the performance of his duty; and sometimes even

to conceal from the public a good deal of gross negligence。

     Those parts of education; it is to be observed; for the

teaching of which there are no public institutions; are generally

the best taught。 When a young man goes to a fencing or a dancing

school; he does not indeed always learn to fence or to dance very

well; but he seldom fails of learning to fence or to dance。 The

good effects of the riding school are not commonly so evident。

The expense of a riding school is so great; that in most places

it is a public institution。 The three most essential parts of

literary education; to read; write; and account; it still

continues to be more common to acquire in private than in public

schools; and it very seldom happens that anybody fails of

acquiring them to the degree in which it is necessary to acquire

them。

     In England the public schools are much less corrupted than

the universities。 In the schools the youth are taught; or at

least may be taught; Greek and Latin; that is; everything which

the masters pretend to teach; or which; it is expected; they

should teach。 In the universities the youth neither are taught;

nor always can find any proper means of being taught; the

sciences which it is the business of those incorporated bodies to

teach。 The reward of the schoolmaster in most cases depends

principally; in some cases almost entirely; upon the fees or

honoraries of his scholars。 Schools have no exclusive privileges。

In order to obtain the honours of graduation; it is not necessary

that a person should bring a certificate of his having studied a

certain number of years at a public school。 If upon examination

he appears to understand what is taught there; no questions are

asked about the place where he learnt it。

     The parts of education which are commonly taught in

universities; it may; perhaps; be said are not very well taught。

But had it not been for those institutions they would not have

been commonly taught at all; and both the individual and the

public would have suffered a good deal from the want of those

important parts of education。

     The present universities of Europe were originally; the

greater part of them; ecclesiastical corporations; instituted for

the education of churchmen。 They were founded by the authority of

the Pope; and were so entirely under his immediate protection;

that their members; whether masters or students; had all of them

what was then called the benefit of clergy; that is; were

exempted from the civil jurisdiction of the countries in which

their respective universities were situated; and were amenable

only to the ecclesiastical tribunals。 What was taught in the

greater part of those universities was suitable to the end of

their institution; either theology; or something that was merely

preparatory to theology。

     When Christianity was first established by law; a corrupted

Latin had become the common language of all the western parts of

Europe。 The service of the church accordingly; and the

translation of the Bible which was read in churches; were both in

that corrupted Latin; that is; in the common language of the

country。 After the irruption of the barbarous nations who

overturned the Roman empire; Latin gradually ceased to be the

language of any part of Europe。 But the reverence of the people

naturally preserves the established forms and ceremonies of

religion long after the circumstances which first introduced and

rendered them reasonable are no more。 Though Latin; therefore;

was no longer understood anywhere by the great body of the

people; the whole service of the church still continued to be

performed in that language。 Two different languages were thus

established in Europe; in the same manner as in ancient Egypt; a

language of the priests; and a language of the people; a sacred

and a profane; a learned and an unlearned language。 But it was

necessary that the priests should understand something of that

sacred and learned language in which they were to officiate; and

the study of the Latin language therefore made; from the

beginning; an essential part of university education。

     It was not so with that either of the Greek or of the Hebrew

language。 The infallible decrees of the church had pronounced the

Latin translation of the Bible; commonly called the Latin

Vulgate; to have been equally dictated by divine inspiration; and

therefore of equal authority with the Greek and Hebrew originals。

The knowledge of those two languages; therefore; not being

indispensably requisite to a churchman; the study of them did not

for a long time make a necessary part of the common course of

university education。 There are some Spanish universities; I am

assured; in which the study of the Greek language has never yet

made any part of that course。 The first reformers found the Greek

text of the New Testament; and even the Hebrew text of the Old;

more favorable to their opinions than the Vulgate translation;

which; as might naturally be supposed; had been gradually

accommodated to support the doctrines of the Catholic Church。

They set themselves; therefore; to expose the many errors of that

translation; which the Roman Catholic clergy were thus put under

the necessity of defending or explaining。 But this could not well

be done without some knowledge of the original languages; of

which the study was therefore gradually introduced into the

greater part of universities; both of those which embraced; and

of those which rejected; the doctrines of the Reformation。 The

Greek language was connected with every part of that classical

learning which; though at first principally cultivated by

Catholics and Italians; happened to come into fashion much about

the same time that the doctrines of the Reformation were set on

foot。 In the greater part of universities; therefore; that

language was taught previous to the study of philosophy; and as

soon as the student had made some progress in the Latin。 The

Hebrew language having no connection with classical learning;

and; except the Holy Scriptures; being the language of not a

single book in any esteem; the study of it did not commonly

commence till after that of philosophy; and when the student had

entered upon the study of theology。

     Originally the first rudiments both of the Greek and Latin

languages were taught in universities; and in some universities

they still continue to be so。 In others it is expected that the

student should have previously acquired at least the rudiments of

one or both of those languages; of which the study continues to

make everywhere a very considerable part of university education。

     The ancient Greek philosophy was divided into three great

branches; physics; or natural philosophy; ethics; or moral

philosophy; and logic。 This general division seems perfectly

agreeable to the nature of things。

     The great phenomena of nature… the revolutions of the

heavenly bodies; eclipses; comets; thunder; lightning; and other

extraordinary meteors; the generation; the life; growth; and

dissolution of plants and animals… are objects which; as they

necessarily excite the wonder; so they naturally call forth the

curiosity; of mankind to inquire into their causes。 Superstition

first attempted to satisfy this curiosity; by referring all those

wonderful appearances to the immediate agency of the gods。

Philosophy afterwards endeavoured to account for them from more

familiar causes; or from such as mankind were better acquainted

with; than the agency of the gods。 As those great phenomena are

the first objects of human curiosity; so the science which

pretends to explain them must naturally have been the first

branch of philosophy that was cultivated。 The first philosophers;

accordingly; of whom history has preserved any account; appear to

have been natural philosophers。

     In every age and country of the world men must have attended

to the characters; designs; and actions of one another; and many

reputable rules and maxims for the conduct of human life must

have been laid down and approved of by common consent。 As soon as

writing came into fashion; wise men; or those who fancied

themselves such; would naturally endeavour to increase the number

of those established and respected maxims; and to express their

own sense of what was either proper or improper conduct;

sometimes in the more artificial form of apologues; like what are

called the fa

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