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disposition of things rather than by his own nature considered solely 



in itself。







Such are the matters which I engaged to prove in IV:xviii。; whereby it 



is plain that the law against the slaughtering of animals is founded rather 



on vain superstition and womanish pity than on sound reason。 The rational 



quest of what is useful to us further teaches us the necessity of 



associating ourselves with our fellow men; but … not with beasts; or things; 



whose nature is different from our own; we have the same rights in respect 



to them as they have in respect to us。 Nay; as everyone's right is defined 



by his virtue; or power; men have far greater rights over beasts than 



beasts have over men。 Still I do not deny that beasts feel: what I deny is; 



that we may not consult our own advantage and use them as we please; 



treating them in the way which best suits us; for their nature is not like 



ours; and their emotions are naturally different from human emotions 



(III:Ivii。Note)。 It remains for me to explain what I mean by; just and 



unjust; sin and merit。 On these points see the following note。







Note II。… In the Appendix to Part I。 I undertook to explain praise and 



blame; merit and sin; justice and injustice。







Concerning praise and blame I have spoken in III:xxix。Note: the time 



has now come to treat of the remaining terms。 But I must first say a few 



words concerning man in the state of nature and in society。







Every man exists by sovereign natural right; and; consequently; by 



sovereign natural right performs those actions which follow from the 



necessity of his own nature; therefore by sovereign natural right every man 



judges what is good and what is bad; takes care of his own advantage 



according to his own disposition (IV:xix。 and IV:xx。); avenges the wrongs 



done to him (III:xl。Coroll。 ii。); and endeavours to preserve that which he 



loves and to destroy … that which he hates (III:xxviii。)。 Now; if men lived 



under the guidance of reason; everyone would remain in possession of this 



his right; without any injury being done to his neighbour V:xxxv。Coroll。i。)。 



But seeing that they are a prey to their emotions; which far surpass human 



power or virtue (IV:vi。); they are often drawn in different directions; and 



being at variance one with another (IV:xxxiii。; xxxiv。); stand in need of 



mutual help (IV:xxxv。Note)。 Wherefore; in order that men may live together 



in harmony; and may aid one another; it is necessary that they should 



forego their natural right; and; for the sake of security; refrain from 



all actions which can injure their fellow…men。 The way in which this end 



can be obtained; so that men who are necessarily a prey to their emotions 



(IV:iv。Coroll。); inconstant; and diverse; should be able to render each 



other mutually secure; and feel mutual trust; is evident from IV:vii。 and 



III:xxxix。 It is there shown; that an emotion can only be restrained by an 



emotion stronger than; and contrary to itself; and that men avoid inflicting 



injury through fear of incurring a greater injury themselves。







On this law society can be established; so long as it keeps in its own 



hand the right; possessed by everyone; of avenging injury; and pronouncing 



on good and evil; and provided it also possesses the power to lay down a 



general rule of conduct; and to pass laws sanctioned; not by reason; which 



is powerless in restraining emotion; but by threats (IV:xvii。Note)。 Such a 



society established with laws and the power of preserving itself is called 



a State; while those who live under its protection are called citizens。 We 



may readily understand that there is in the state of nature nothing; which 



by universal consent is pronounced good or bad; for in the state of nature 



everyone thinks solely of his own advantage; and according to his 



disposition; with reference only to his individual advantage; decides 



what is good or bad; being bound by no law to anyone besides himself。







In the state of nature; therefore; sin is inconceivable; it can only 



exist in a state; where good and evil are pronounced on by common consent; 



and where everyone is bound to obey the State authority。 Sin; then; 



is nothing else but disobedience; which is therefore punished by the right 



of the State only。 Obedience; on the other hand; is set down as merit; 



inasmuch as a man is thought worthy of merit; if he takes delight in the 



advantages which a State provides。







Again; in the state of nature; no one is by common consent master of 



anything; nor is there anything in nature; which can be said to belong to 



one man rather than another: all things are common to all。 Hence; in the 



state of nature; we can conceive no wish to render to every man his own; 



or to deprive a man of that which belongs to him; in other words; there is 



nothing in the state of nature answering to justice and injustice。 Such 



ideas are only possible in a social state; when it is decreed by common 



consent what belongs to one man and what to another。







From all these considerations it is evident; that justice and 



injustice; sin and merit; are extrinsic ideas; and not attributes which 



display the nature of the mind。 But I have said enough。















Prop。 XXXVIII。 Whatsoever disposes the human 



body; so as to render it capable of being 



affected in an increased number of ways; or 



of affecting external bodies in an increased 



number of ways; is useful to man ; and is so; 



in proportion as the body is thereby rendered 



more capable of being affected or affecting 



other bodies in an increased number of ways; 



contrariwise; whatsoever renders the body less 



capable in this respect is hurtful to man。







Proof。… Whatsoever thus increases the capabilities of the body increases 



also the mind's capability of perception (II:xiv。); therefore; whatsoever 



thus disposes the body and thus renders it capable; is necessarily good or 



useful (IV:xxvi。; IV:xxvii。); and is so in proportion to the extent to 



which it can render the body capable; contrariwise (II:xiv。; IV:xxvi。; 



IV:xxvii。); it is hurtful; if it renders the body in this respect less 



capable。 Q。E。D。















Prop。 XXXIX。 Whatsoever brings about 



the preservation of the proportion of 



motion and rest; which the parts of 



the human body mutually possess; is 



good; contrariwise; whatsoever causes 



a change in such proportion is bad。







Proof。… The human body needs many other bodies for its preservation 



(II:Post。iv。)。 But that which constitutes the specific reality (forma) 



of a human body is; that its parts communicate their several motions 



one to another in a certain fixed proportion (Def。 before Lemma iv。 after 



II:xiii。)。 Therefore; whatsoever brings about the preservation of the 



proportion between motion and rest; which the parts of the human body 



mutually possess; preserves the specific reality of the human body; and 



consequently renders the human body capable of being affected in many ways 



and of affecting external bodies in many ways; consequently it is good 



(by the last Prop。)。 Again; whatsoever brings about a change in the 



aforesaid proportion causes the human body to assume another specific 



character; in other words (see Preface to this Part towards the end; 



though the point is indeed self…evident); to be destroyed; and 



consequently totally incapable of being affected in an increased 



numbers of ways; therefore it is bad。 Q。E。D。







Note。… The extent to which such causes can injure or be of service to the 



mind will be explained in the Fifth Part。 But I would here remark that I 



consider that a body undergoes death; when the proportion of motion and 



rest which obtained mutually among its several parts is changed。 For I do 



not venture to deny that a human body; while keeping the circulation of 



the blood and other properties; wherein the life of a body is thought to 



consist; may none the less be changed into another nature totally different 



from its own。 There is no reason; which compels me to maintain that a body 



does not die; unless it becomes a corpse; nay; experience would seem to 



point to the opposite conclusion。 It sometimes happens; that a man 



undergoes such changes; that I should hardly call him the same。 As I have 



heard tell of a certain Spanish poet; who had been seized with sickness; 



and though he recovered therefrom yet remained so oblivious of his past 



life; that he would not believe the plays and tragedies he had 



written to be his own: indeed; he might have been taken for a grown…up 



child; if he had also forgotten his native tongue。 If this instance seems 



incredible; what shall we say of infants? A man of ripe age deem

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