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copper by the ancients for edge…tools and warlike instruments; does

not preclude the supposition that iron was then comparatively

plentiful; though it is probable that it was confined to the ruder

arts of life。  A knowledge of the mixture of copper; tin; and zinc;

seems to have been among the first discoveries of the metallurgist。

Instruments fabricated from these alloys; recommended by the use of

ages; the perfection of the art; the splendour and polish of their

surfaces; not easily injured by time and weather; would not soon be

superseded by the invention of simple iron; inferior in edge and

polish; at all times easily injured by rust; and in the early stages

of its manufacture converted with difficulty into forms that required

proportion or elegance。〃(Papers on Iron and Steel; 365…6。) By some

secret method that has been lost; perhaps because no longer needed

since the invention of steel; the ancients manufactured bronze tools

capable of taking a fine edge。  in our own time; Chantrey the

sculptor; in his reverence for classic metallurgy; had a bronze razor

made with which he martyred himself in shaving; but none were found

so hardy and devoted as to follow his example。

 。。。'

the latter metal continuing to be employed only for the purpose of

making scabbards or sword…handles。  Shortly after the commencement of

the iron age; the lake…habitations were abandoned; the only

settlement of this later epoch yet discovered being that at Tene; on

Lake Neufchatel:  and it is a remarkable circumstance; showing the

great antiquity of the lake…dwellings; that they are not mentioned by

any of the Roman historians。



That iron should have been one of the last of the metals to come into

general use; is partly accounted for by the circumstance that iron;

though one of the most generally diffused of minerals; never presents

itself in a natural state; except in meteorites; and that to

recognise its ores; and then to separate the metal from its matrix;

demands the exercise of no small amount of observation and invention。

Persons unacquainted with minerals would be unable to discover the

slightest affinity between the rough ironstone as brought up from the

mine; and the iron or steel of commerce。  To unpractised eyes they

would seem to possess no properties in common; and it is only after

subjecting the stone to severe processes of manufacture that usable

metal can be  obtained from it。  The effectual reduction of the ore

requires an intense heat; maintained by artificial methods; such as

furnaces and blowing apparatus。*

 'footnote。。。

It may be mentioned in passing; that while Zinc is fusible at

3 degrees of Wedgwood's pyrometer; Silver at 22 degrees; Copper at

27 degrees; and Gold at 32 degrees; Cast Iron is only fusible at

130 degrees。  Tin (one of the constituents of the ancient bronze) and

Lead are fusible at much lower degrees than zinc。

 。。。'

But it is principally in combination with other elements that iron is

so valuable when compared with other metals。  Thus; when combined with

carbon; in varying proportions; substances are produced; so

different; but each so valuable; that they might almost be regarded

in the light of distinct metals;such; for example; as cast…iron;

and cast and bar steel; the various qualities of iron enabling it to

be used for purposes so opposite as a steel pen and a railroad; the

needle of a mariner's compass and an Armstrong gun; a surgeon's

lancet and a steam engine; the mainspring of a watch and an iron

ship; a pair of scissors and a Nasmyth hammer; a lady's earrings and

a tubular bridge。



The variety of purposes to which iron is thus capable of being

applied; renders it of more use to mankind than all the other metals

combined。  Unlike iron; gold is found pure; and in an almost workable

state; and at an erly period in history; it seems to have been much

more plentiful than iron or steel。  But gold was unsuited for the

purposes of tools; and would serve for neither a saw; a chisel; an

axe; nor a sword; whilst tempered steel could answer all these

purposes。  Hence we find the early warlike nations making the backs of

their swords of gold or copper; and economizing their steel to form

the cutting edge。  This is illustrated by many ancient Scandinavian

weapons in the museum at Copenhagen; which indicate the greatest

parsimony in the use of steel at a period when both gold and copper

appear to have been comparatively abundant。



The knowledge of smelting and working in iron; like most other arts;

came from the East。  Iron was especially valued for purposes of war;

of which indeed it was regarded as the symbol; being called 〃Mars〃 by

the Romans。*

 'footnote。。。

The Romans named the other metals after the gods。  Thus Quicksilver

was called Mercury; Lead Saturn; Tin Jupiter; Copper Venus; Silver

Luna; and so on; and our own language has received a colouring from

the Roman nomenclature; which it continues to retain。

 。。。'

We find frequent mention of it in the Bible。  One of the earliest

notices of the metal is in connexion with the conquest of Judea by

the Philistines。  To complete the subjection of the Israelites; their

conquerors made captive all the smiths of the land; and carried them

away。  The Philistines felt that their hold of the country was

insecure so long as the inhabitants possessed the means of forging

weapons。  Hence 〃there was no smith found throughout all the land of

Israel; for the Philistines said; Lest the Hebrews make them swords

or spears。  But the Israelites went down to the Philistines; to

sharpen every man his share; and his coulter; and his axe; and his

mattock。〃*

 'footnote。。。

I。  Samuel xiii。 19; 20。

 。。。'



At a later period; when Jerusalem was taken by the Babylonians; one

of their first acts was to carry the smiths and other craftsmen

captives to Babylon。*

 'footnote。。。

II。  Kings xxiv。 16。

 。。。'

Deprived of their armourers; the Jews were rendered comparatively

powerless。



It was the knowledge of the art of iron…forging which laid the

foundation of the once great empire of the Turks。  Gibbon relates that

these people were originally the despised slaves of the powerful Khan

of the Geougen。  They occupied certain districts of the mountain…ridge

in the centre of Asia; called Imaus; Caf; and Altai; which yielded

iron in large quantities。  This metal the Turks were employed by the

Khan to forge for his use in war。  A bold leader arose among them; who

persuaded the ironworkers that the arms which they forged for their

masters might in their own hands become the instruments of freedom。

Sallying forth from their mountains; they set up their standard; and

their weapons soon freed them。  For centuries after; the Turkish

nation continued to celebrate the event of their liberation by an

annual ceremony; in which a piece of iron was heated in the fire; and

a smith's hammer was successively handled by the prince and his

nobles。



We can only conjecture how the art of smelting iron was discovered。

Who first applied fire to the ore; and made it plastic; who

discovered fire itself; and its uses in metallurgy? No one can tell。

Tradition says that the metal was discovered through the accidental

burning of a wood in Greece。  Mr。 Mushet thinks it more probable that

the discovery was made on the conversion of wood into charcoal for

culinary or chamber purposes。  〃If a mass of ore;〃 he says;

〃accidentally dropped into the middle of the burning pile during a

period of neglect; or during the existence of a thorough draught; a

mixed mass; partly earthy and partly metallic; would be obtained;

possessing ductility and extension under pressure。  But if the

conjecture is pushed still further; and we suppose that the ore was

not an oxide; but rich in iron; magnetic or spicular; the result

would in all probability be a mass of perfectly malleable iron。  I

have seen this fact illustrated in the roasting of a species of

iron…stone; which was united with a considerable mass of bituminous

matter。  After a high temperature had been excited in the interior of

the pile; plates of malleable iron of a tough and flexible nature

were formed; and under circumstances where there was no fuel but that

furnished by the ore itself。〃*

 'footnote。。。

Papers on Iron and Steel; 363…4。

 。。。'



The metal once discovered; many attempts would be made to give to

that which had been the effect of accident a more unerring result。

The smelting of ore in an open heap of wood or charcoal being found

tedious and wasteful; as well as uncertain; would naturally lead to

the invention of a furnace; with the object of keeping the ore

surrounded as much as possible with fuel while the process of

conversion into iron was going forward。  The low conical furnaces

employed at this day by some of the tribes of Central and Southern

Africa; are perhaps very much the same in character as those adopted

by the early tribes o

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