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leaden bullae。



The custom of dividing wax; ivory; wood and metal

MSS。 into pages and in this way into book form is said

by Suetonius to have been introduced by Julius Caesar;

whose letters to the Senate were so made up; and

after whose time the practice became usual for all

documents either addressed to; or issuing from that

body; or to or from the Emperors。 As that form subsequently

crept into general use; the books were known

as 〃codices;〃 and hence the ordinary term as applied

to manuscript volumes。



All classes of 〃books;〃 the reeds for writing in

them; the inkstands; and the 〃capsae〃 or 〃scrinia;〃

the boxes in which the 〃scapi〃 or rolls were kept;

are minutely portrayed in ancient wall…paintings and

ivory diptychs (double tablets); and which may belong

to a period near the beginning of the Christian era。



Pliny and Dioscorides have given the formulas for

the writing inks used by the Greek and Roman scribes

immediately before and during their time。 Pliny declares

that the ink of the bookmakers was made of

soot; charcoal and gum; although he does not state

what fluid was employed to commingle them。 He does;

however; mention to an occasional use of some acid

(vinegar) to give the ink a binding property on the

papyrus。



Dioscorides; however; specifies the proportions of

this 〃soot〃 ink。 Another formula alluded to by the

same author calls for a half ounce each of copperas

(blue) and ox…glue; with half pound of smoke black

made from burned resin。 He adds; 〃is a good application

in cases of gangrene and is useful in scalds; if a

little thickened and employed as a salve。〃 De Vinne

speaks of this as a 〃crude〃 receipt which will enable

one to form a correct opinion of the quality of

scientific knowledge then applied to medicine and the

mechanical arts; also that these mixtures which are

more like shoe blacking than writing fluid were used

with immaterial modifications by the scribes of the

dark ages。



The old Greeks and Romans had no substitute for

the papyrus; which was so brittle that it could not be

folded or creased。 It could not be bound up in books;

nor could it be rolled up unsupported。 It was secure

only when it had been wound around a wooden or

metal roller。



After the wholesale destruction of the libraries of

ink…written MSS。; the black inks began to fall into disuse;

their value in respect to quality gradually deteriorated;

caused by the displacement of gummy

vehicles; and a consequent absence of any chance of

union between the parchment or papyrus and the dry

black particles; which could be 〃blown〃 or washed

off。 To employ any other kind of ink except one of

natural origin like the juice of berries which soon

disappeared; was forbidden by prevailing religious

customs。 Such conditions naturally merged into

others; in the shape of 〃ink〃 substitutes for writing;

the stylus; with its accompanying sheets or tablets

of ivory; wood; metal and wax came into popular

vogue and so continued for many centuries; even after

the employment of ink for writing purposes had been

resumed。



Ovid; in his story of Caunus and Byblis; illustrates

the use of the tables (tablets); and he lived at the time

of the birth of Christ; thus translated:



 〃Then fits her trembling hands to Write:

 One holds the Wax; the Style the other guides;

 Begins; doubts; writes; and at the Table chides;

 Notes; razes; changes oft; dislikes; approves;

 Throws all aside; resumes what she removes。

 *   *    *    *    *    *    *    *

 〃The Wax thus filled with her successless wit;

 She Verses in the utmost margin writ。〃



He also makes reference to inks; in the passage

taken from his first elegy; 〃Ad Librum:〃



 〃Nec te purpureo velent vaccinia succo;

 Non est conveniens luctibus ille color。

 Nec titulus minio; nec cedro charta notetur。

 Candida nec nigra cornua fronte geras。〃



which Davids translates as follows:



〃TO HIS BOOK。



 〃Nor shall huckleberries stain (literally veil) thee with purple

          juice:

 That color is not becoming to lamentations。

 Nor shall title (or head…letter) be marked with vermillion; or

          paper with cedar;

 Thou shalt carry neither white nor black horns on thy forehead

          (or front; or frontispiece)。〃



The traditions handed down as of this era relating

to the efforts to find some substitute for 〃Indian〃

ink which would not only 〃bind〃 to parchment and

vellum but also would be satisfactory to the priests;

are more or less confirmed by the younger Pliny; and

makes it safe to assume that several were invented

and employed in writing; though possessing but little

lasting qualities。 Their use and natural disappearance

is perhaps the real cause of the fact that there are no

original MSS。 extant dating as of or belonging to the

time immediately preceding or following the birth of

Christ; or indeed until long after his death。



There is some authority though for the statement

that at this time two vitriolic substances were used in

the preparation of black ink;a slime or sediment

(Salsugo) and a yellow vitriolic earth (Misy)。 This

last…named mineral; is unquestionably the same natural

chemical mentioned by writers; which about the end

of the first century was designated 〃kalkanthum〃 or

〃chalkanthum〃 and possessed not only the appearance

of; but the virtues of what we know as blue

copperas or sulphate of copper。 It continued in use

as long as men were unacquainted with the art of

lixiviating salt; or; in other words; as long as they had

no vitriol manufactories。 Commingled with lampblack;

bitumen or like black substances in gummy

water; it was acceptable to the priests for ritualistic

writings and was in general vogue for several centuries

thereafter under the name of (blue) 〃vitriolic〃

ink; notwithstanding the fact that there could not be

any lasting chemical union between such materials。



It was the so…called 〃vitriolic〃 ink; which is said

to have 〃corroded the delicate leaves of the papyrus

and to have eaten through both parchment and

vellum。〃



These deductions; however; do not agree with some

of the historians and scholars like Noel Humphreys;

author of the 〃Origin and Progress of the Art of

Writing;〃 London; 1855; a recognized authority on the

subject of ancient MSS。; who but repeats in part the

text of earlier writers; when he says; p。 101:



〃Examples of early Greek MSS。 of the last century

previous to the Christian era are not confined

to Egyptian sources; the buried city of Herculaneum;

in Italy; partially destroyed about seventy…

nine years before the Christian era; and injured by

subsequeut eruptions; till totally destroyed by the

most violent eruption of Vesuvius on record; that

of the year 471 A。 D。 having yielded several

specimens。〃



The MSS。 examples mentioned in the citation; must

of necessity refer to specimens of writing made with

〃vitriolic〃 and even more ancient inks。 They are to

be considered in conjunction with the historical fact

that these cities were buried for more than sixteen

hundred years; counting from the first eruption; before

they were brought to light (Herculaneum was discovered

A。 D。 1713 and Pompeii; forty years later);

also that they must have been subjected to intense

heat and a long period of decay which could only operate

to rob them of all traces of natural ink phenomena。

Furthermore; the information Mr。 Humphreys

seeks to convey; dates contemporaneously with the first

eruption of Vesuvius; which occurred seventy…nine

years AFTER the Christian era and not seventy…nine

years BEFORE it。



This stupendous blunder involves a period of one

hundred and fifty…eight years; if it is rectified; the

〃early Greek MSS。〃 are shown to emanate from the

second half of the first century following the birth of

Christ and confirming to some extent the deductions

hereinbefore made; although the probabilities are that

they belong to later periods; included in the third and

fourth centuries。



It is affirmed that the eruption of Mt。 Vesuvius

A。 D。 79; did not entirely destroy the cities of Herculaneum

and Pompeii; and that they emerged from their

ruins in the reign of the Emperor Titus。 They are

also mentioned as inhabited cities in the chart of

Peutinger; which is of the date of Constantine。



The next eruption; A。 D。 471; was probably the most

frightful on record if we exclude the volcanic eruption

of Mt。 Pelee; which occurred in Martinique; West

Indies; in 1902; destroying thirty thousand human

beings in fifteen minutes and devastating nearly the

entire island。 From Marcellinus we learn that the

ashes of the Vesuvius volcano were vomited over a

great portion of Europe; reaching to Constantinople;

where a festival was instituted in commemoration of

the strange phenomenon。 After this; we hear no

more of these cities; but the portion of th

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