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all parts of Europe。 His little volume contains the

replies which Meerman received。 The scholars who

remitted the result of their investigations were unable

to distinguish between what they estimated as

cotton or linen rags。 They did; however; establish

the fact that paper made of linen rags existed before

1308; and some of them even sought to give the

honor of the invention to Germany。 They also asserted

that the most ancient English specimen of

such a paper belonged to the year 1342。



The transformation of paper made from every conceivable

fibrous material into what is commonly

known as 〃linen〃 or true paper was of slow growth

until after the invention of printing。 Following that

great event it is surprising; how; in so short a period;

the manufacturers of paper improved its quality and

the degree of excellence which it later attained。

They imitated the old vellum so closely that it was

even called vellum and is so known to this day。

This class of paper was employed both for writing

and printing purposes and has never been excelled;

surpassing any like productions of modern times。



A curious custom came into vogue during the

early infancy of the 〃linen〃 paper industry; which

is of so much interest and possesses so curious a

history as to be well worth mentioning。 It is the

water mark as it is commonly but erroneously termed

in connection with paper manufacture。



Its origin dates back to the thirteenth century;

though the monuments indicating its use before the

time of printing are but few in number。



The real employment of the water mark may be

said to have commenced at the time when it was

a custom of the first printers to omit their names

from their works。 Also; it is to be considered that at

this period comparatively few people could either

read or write and therefore pictures; designs or other

marks were employed to enable them to distinguish

the paper of one manufacturer from another。 These

marks as they became common naturally gave their

names to the different sorts of paper。



The earliest known water mark on linen paper

represented a picture of a tower and was of the date

of 1293。 The next known water mark which can be

designated is a ram's head and is found in a book of

accounts belonging to an official of Bordeaux which

was then subject to England。 It is dated 1330。



In the fifteenth century there were no distinctions

in the quality of paper used for manuscripts or for

books。 In the Mentz Bible of 1462 are to be found

no less than three sorts of paper。 Of this Bible; the

water mark in some sheets is a bull's head simply;

and in others a bull's head from whose forehead rises

a long line; at the end of which is a cross。 In other

sheets the water mark is a bunch of grapes。



In 1498 the water mark of paper consisted of an

eight pointed star within a double circle。 The design

of an open hand with a star at the top which

was in use as early as 1530; probably gave the name

to what is still called hand paper。



It appears that even so high a personage as Henry

VIII of England in 1540 utilized the water mark in

order to show his contempt for and animosity to

Pope Paul III; with whom he had then quarreled;

gave orders for the preparation of paper; the water

mark of which was a hog with a miter: this he used

for his private correspondence。



A little later; about the middle of the sixteenth

century; the favorite paper mark was the jug or pot;

from which would appear to have originated the term

pot paper。 Still another belonging to this period

was the device of a glove。



At the beginning of the seventeenth century; the

device was a fool's cap and which has continued by

name as the particular size which we now designate

fool's cap。



The water mark has continued to increase in popularity

and to…day may be found in almost any kind of

paper; either in the shape of designs; figures; numbers

or names。



The circumstance of the water mark has at various

times been the means of detecting frauds; forgeries

and impositions in our courts of law and elsewhere。

The following is introduced as a whimsical example

of such detections and is said to have occurred in the

fifteenth century; and is related by Beloe; London;

1807:



〃The monks of a certain monastery at Messina

exhibited to a visitor with great triumph; a letter

which they claimed had been written in ink by the

Virgin Mary with her own hand; not on the ancient

papyrus; but on paper made of rags。 The visitor

to whom it was shown observed with affected

solemnity; that the letter involved also a miracle

because the paper on which it was written could

not have been in existence until over a thousand

years after her death。〃



An interesting example of the use of water marks

on paper for fraudulent purposes is to be found in a

pamphlet entitled 〃Ireland's Confessions。〃 This person;

a son of Samuel Ireland; who was a distinguished

draughtsman and engraver; about the end of the

eighteenth century fabricated a pretended Shakespeare

MSS。; which as a literary forgery was the

most remarkable of its time。 Previous to his confessions

it had been accepted by the Shakespearean

scholars as unquestionably the work of the immortal

bard。 The following is a citation from his Confessions:



〃Being thus urged forward to the production of

more manuscripts; it became necessary that I

should posses; a sufficient quantity of old paper to

enable me to proceed; in consequence of which I

applied to a book…seller named Verey; in Great

May's buildings; St。 Martin's Lane; who; for the

sum of five shillings; suffered me to take from all

the folio and quarto volumes in his shop the fly

leaves which they contained。 By this means I was

amply stored with that commoditynor did I fear

any mention of the circumstance by Mr。 Verey;

whose quiet; unsuspecting disposition; I was well

convinced; would never lead him to make the transaction

public; in addition to which; he was not

likely even to know anything concerning the supposed

Shakespearean discovery by myself; and even

if he had; I do not imagine that my purchase of

the old paper in question would have excited in

him the smallest degree of suspicion。 As I was

fully aware; from the variety of water…marks; which

are in existence at the present day; that they must

have constantly been altered since the period of

Elizabeth and being for some time wholly unacquainted

with the water…marks of that age; I very

carefully produced my first specimens of the

writing on such sheets of old paper as had no

marks whatever。 Having heard it frequently stated

that the appearance of such marks on the papers

would have greatly tended to establish their validity;

I listened attentively to every remark which

was made upon the subject; and from thence I at

length gleaned the intelligence that a jug was the

prevalent water…mark of the reign of Elizabeth; in

consequence of which I inspected all the sheets of

old paper then in my possession; and having selected

such as had the jug upon them; I produced the

succeeding manuscripts upon these; being careful;

however; to mingle with them a certain number of

blank leaves; that the production on a sudden of so

many water…marks might not excite suspicion in

the breasts of those persons who were most conversant

with the manuscripts。〃



Fuller; writing in 1662; characterizes the paper of

his day:



〃Paper participates in some sort of the character

of the country which makes it; the Venetian

being neat; subtle; and court…like; the French

light; slight; and slender; and the Dutch thick;

corpulent; and gross; sticking up the ink with the

sponginess thereof。 And he complains of the

'vast sums of money expended in our land for

paper out of Italy; France; and Germany; which

might be lessened were it made in our nation。' 〃



Ulman Strother in 1390 started his paper mill at

Nuremberg in Bavaria which was the first paper

mill known to have been established in Germany; and

is said to have been the only one in Europe then

manufacturing paper from linen rags。



Among the privy expenses of Henry VII of the

year 1498 appears the following entry: 〃A reward

given to the paper mill; 16s。 8d。〃 This is probably

the paper mill mentioned by Wynkin de Worde; the

father of English typography。 It was located at

Hertford; and the water mark he employed was a star

within a double circle。



The manufacture of paper in England previous to

the revolution of 1688 was an industry of very small

proportions; most of the paper being imported from

Holland。



The first paper mill established in America was by

William Rittenhouse who emigrated from Holland

and settled in Germantown; Pa。; in 1690。 At Roxborough;

near Philadelphia; on a stream afterwards

called Paper Mill run; which empties into the Wissahicken

river; wa

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