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author of the famous sophism against motion。 'If

any body be moved; it is moved in the place where

it is; or in a place where it is not; for nothing can

act or suffer where it is not; and therefore there is

no such thing as motion。' 〃



By Astle:



〃The General History of Polybius originally

contained forty books; but the first five only; with

some extracts or fragments; are transmitted to us。〃



By Anthon:



〃Polybius; an eminent Greek historian; born

about; B。 C。 203。 Polybius gave to the world various

historical writings; which are entirely lost with

the exception of his General History。 It embraced

a period of 53 years。 Of the forty books which it

originally comprehended; time has spared only the

first five entire。 Of the rest; as far as the seventeenth;

we have merely fragments though of considerable

size。 Of the remaining books we have

nothing left except what is found in two merger

abridgments which the Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus;

in the tenth century caused to be

made of the whole work。〃



From Astle:



〃Dionysius Halicarnassensis wrote twenty books

of Roman antiquities; extending from the siege of

Troy; to the Punic war A。 U。 C。 488; but only

eleven of them are now remaining; which reach no

further than the year of Rome 312。〃



From Anthon:



〃He was born in the first century B。 C。 His

principal work was 'Roman Antiquities。' It originally

consisted of twenty books; of which the first

ten remain entire。 Dionysius wrote for the Greeks;

and his object was to relieve them from the mortification

which they felt at being conquered by a race

of barbarians; as they considered the Romans to be。

And this he endeavored to effect by twisting and

forging testimonies; and botching up the old legends;

so as to make out a prima facie proof of the Greek

origin of the city of Rome。 Valuable additions

were made in 1816; by Mai; from an old MSS。〃



By Astle:



〃Appian is said to have written the Roman

History in twenty…four books; but the greatest

part of the works of that author is lost。〃



By Anthon:



〃He was the author of a Roman History in

twenty…four books which no longer exist entire;

the parts missing have been supplied but was not

written by Appian but is a mere compilation from

Plutarch's Lives of Crassus and Antony。〃



By Astle:



〃Dion Cassius wrote eighty books of history;

but only twenty…five are remaining; with some

fragments; and an epitome of the last twenty by

Xiphilinus。〃



By Anthon:



〃His true name was Cassius; born A。 D。 155;

we have fragments remaining of the first thirty…

six books; they comprehend a period from B。 C。 65

to B。 C。 10;they were found by Mai in two Vatican

MSS。; which contain a sylloge or collection

made by Maximus Planudes (who lived in the

fourteenth century。 He was the first Greek that

made use of the Arabic numerals as they are

called)。〃



Mr。 Astle further observes:



〃The Emperor Tacitus ordered ten copies of the

works of his relation; the historian; to be made

every year which he sent into the different provinces

of the empire; and yet; notwithstanding his

endeavours to perpetuate these inestimable works;

they were buried in oblivion for many centuries。

Since the restoration of learning an ancient MSS。

was discovered in a monastery in Westphalia;

which contained the most valuable part of his annals;

but in this unique manuscript; part of the

fifth; seventh; ninth and tenth books are deficient;

as are part of the eleventh; and the latter part of the

sixteenth。 This MSS。 was procured by that great

restorer of learning Pope Leo X。; under whose patronage

it was printed at Rome in 1515; he afterwards

deposited it in the Vatican library; where it

is still preserved。 Thus posterity is probably indebted

to the above magnificent Pontiff; for the

most valuable part of the works of this inimitable

historian。〃



Accounts which differentiate in their descriptive details

of questioned ink…written fragments of antiquity

and on the genuineness or authenticity of which rests

the truth or falsity of ancient history or other literature;

serve to taint such remains with a certain degree

of suspicion and doubt。 When; however; in the light

of investigation; the materials of which they are composed

are found to approach closely the age they

purport to represent; then it is that such fragments

can be said to have fairly established their own identity。



Taylor asserts:



〃The remote antiquity of a manuscript is of ten

established by the peculiar circumstance of

its existing BENEATH another writing。 Some invaluable

manuscripts of the Holy Scriptures; and

not a few precious fragments of classic literature;

have been thus brought to light。



〃The age of a manuscript may often be ascertained

with little chance of error; by some such

indications as the following:the quality or

appearance of the INK; the nature of the material;

that is to say; whether it be soft leather; or parchment;

or the papyrus of Egypt; or the bombycine

paper; for these materials succeeded each other; in

common use; at periods that are well known;

the peculiar form; size; and character of the writing;

for a regular progression in the modes of writing

may be traced by abundant evidence through every

age from the remotest times;the style of the ornaments

or illuminations; as they are termed; often

serves to indicate the age of the book which they decorate。



〃From such indications as these; more or less

definite and certain; ancient manuscripts; now extant;

are assigned to various periods; extending

from the sixteenth; to the fourth century of the

Christian era; or perhaps; in one or two instances;

to the third or second。 Very few can claim an antiquity

so high as the fourth century; but not a few

are safely attributed to the seventh; and a great

proportion of those extant were unquestionably

executed in the tenth; while many belong to the

following four hundred years。 It is; however; to

be observed; that some manuscripts; executed at so

late a time as the thirteenth; or even the fifteenth

century; afford clear internal evidence that; by a

single remove only; the text they contain claims a

REAL antiquity; higher than that even of the oldest

existing copy of the same work。 For these older

copies sometimes prove; by the peculiar nature of

the corruptions which have crept into the text; that

they have been derived through a long series of

copies; while perhaps the text of the more modern

manuscripts possesses such a degree of purity and

freedom from all the usual consequences of frequent

transcription; as to make it manifest that the copy

from which it was taken; was so ancient as not to

be far distant from the time of the first publication

of the work。〃







CHAPTER V。



REVIVAL OF INK。



THE DISAPPEARANCE AND PRESERVATION OF INK WRITINGS;

AS ESTIMATED BY LA CROIXCOMMENTS OF

OTHER WRITERSDE VINNE'S INTERESTING EXPLANATIONS

OF THE STATUS QUO OF MANUSCRIPT WRITINGS

DURING THE DARK AGES WHICH PRECEDED THE INVENTION

OF PRINTINGPRICES PAID FOR BOOKS IN

ANCIENT TIMESLIMITATIONS OF HANDWRITING AND

HANDWRITING MATERIALS AT THE BEGINNING OF

THE FIFTH CENTURYWHO CONTROLLED THE RECORDS

ABOUT THEMINVENTION OF THE QUILL

PENTHE CAUSE OF INCREASED FLUIDITY OF

INKSORIGIN OF THE SECRETACHARACTER OF

INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM THEMIMPROVEMENT

OF BLACK INKS IN THE EIGHTH CENTURY AND EMPLOYMENT

OF POMEGRANITE INK。



LA CROIX' preface to his 〃Science and Literature of

the Middle Ages and the Renaissance;〃 refers to the

Dark Ages:



〃In the beginning of the Middle Ages; at the

commencement of the fifth century; the Barbarians

made an inroad upon the old world; their renewed

invasions crushed out; in the course of a few years;

the Greek and Roman civilization; and everywhere

darkness succeeded to light。 The religion of Jesus

Christ was alone capable of resisting this barbarian

invasion; and science and literature; together with

the arts; disappeared from the face of the earth;

taking refuge in the churches and monasteries。 It

was there that they were preserved as a sacred deposit;

and it was thence that they emerged when

Christianity had renovated pagan society。 But

centuries and centuries elapsed before the sum of

human knowledge was equal to what it had been at

the fall of the Roman empire。 A new society;

moreover; was needed for the new efforts of human

intelligence as it resumed its rights。 Schools and

universities were founded under the auspices of the

clergy and of the religious corporations; and thus

science and literature were enabled to emerge from

their tombs。 Europe; amidst the tumultuous conflicts

of the policy which made and unmade kingdoms;

witnessed a general revival of the scholastic

zeal; poets; orators; novelists; and writers increased

in 

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