the formation of vegetable mould-µÚ28½Ú
°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡û »ò ¡ú ¿É¿ìËÙÉÏÏ·ҳ£¬°´¼üÅÌÉ쵀 Enter ¼ü¿É»Øµ½±¾ÊéĿ¼ҳ£¬°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡ü ¿É»Øµ½±¾Ò³¶¥²¿£¡
¡ª¡ª¡ª¡ªÎ´ÔĶÁÍꣿ¼ÓÈëÊéÇ©ÒѱãÏ´μÌÐøÔĶÁ£¡
that¡¡they¡¡stand¡¡up¡¡above¡¡the¡¡general¡¡surface¡¡merely¡¡from¡¡resisting¡¡
air£»¡¡rain¡¡and¡¡frost¡¡better¡¡than¡¡the¡¡adjoining¡¡formations¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡has¡¡
rarely¡¡been¡¡the¡¡good¡¡fortune¡¡of¡¡a¡¡geologist¡¡to¡¡bring¡¡conviction¡¡to¡¡
the¡¡minds¡¡of¡¡his¡¡fellow¡workers¡¡on¡¡a¡¡disputed¡¡point¡¡by¡¡a¡¡single¡¡
memoir£»¡¡but¡¡Mr¡£¡¡Whitaker£»¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Geological¡¡Survey¡¡of¡¡England£»¡¡was¡¡
so¡¡fortunate¡¡when£»¡¡in¡¡1867£»¡¡he¡¡published¡¡his¡¡paper¡¡¡¨On¡¡sub¡aerial¡¡
Denudation£»¡¡and¡¡on¡¡Cliffs¡¡and¡¡Escarpments¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Chalk¡£¡¨¡¡£û58£ý¡¡¡¡
Before¡¡this¡¡paper¡¡appeared£»¡¡Mr¡£¡¡A¡£¡¡Tylor¡¡had¡¡adduced¡¡important¡¡
evidence¡¡on¡¡sub¡aerial¡¡denudation£»¡¡by¡¡showing¡¡that¡¡the¡¡amount¡¡of¡¡
matter¡¡brought¡¡down¡¡by¡¡rivers¡¡must¡¡infallibly¡¡lower¡¡the¡¡level¡¡of¡¡
their¡¡drainage¡¡basins¡¡by¡¡many¡¡feet¡¡in¡¡no¡¡immense¡¡lapse¡¡of¡¡time¡£¡¡¡¡
This¡¡line¡¡of¡¡argument¡¡has¡¡since¡¡been¡¡followed¡¡up¡¡in¡¡the¡¡most¡¡
interesting¡¡manner¡¡by¡¡Archibald¡¡Geikie£»¡¡Croll¡¡and¡¡others£»¡¡in¡¡a¡¡
series¡¡of¡¡valuable¡¡memoirs¡£¡¡£û59£ý¡¡¡¡For¡¡the¡¡sake¡¡of¡¡those¡¡who¡¡have¡¡
never¡¡attended¡¡to¡¡this¡¡subject£»¡¡a¡¡single¡¡instance¡¡may¡¡be¡¡here¡¡
given£»¡¡namely£»¡¡that¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Mississippi£»¡¡which¡¡is¡¡chosen¡¡because¡¡the¡¡
amount¡¡of¡¡sediment¡¡brought¡¡down¡¡by¡¡this¡¡great¡¡river¡¡has¡¡been¡¡
investigated¡¡with¡¡especial¡¡care¡¡by¡¡order¡¡of¡¡the¡¡United¡¡States¡¡
Government¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡result¡¡is£»¡¡as¡¡Mr¡£¡¡Croll¡¡shows£»¡¡that¡¡the¡¡mean¡¡level¡¡
of¡¡its¡¡enormous¡¡area¡¡of¡¡drainage¡¡must¡¡be¡¡lowered¡¡1/4566¡¡of¡¡a¡¡foot¡¡
annually£»¡¡or¡¡1¡¡foot¡¡in¡¡4566¡¡years¡£¡¡¡¡Consequently£»¡¡taking¡¡the¡¡best¡¡
estimate¡¡of¡¡the¡¡mean¡¡height¡¡of¡¡the¡¡North¡¡American¡¡continent£»¡¡viz¡£¡¡
748¡¡feet£»¡¡and¡¡looking¡¡to¡¡the¡¡future£»¡¡the¡¡whole¡¡of¡¡the¡¡great¡¡
Mississippi¡¡basin¡¡will¡¡be¡¡washed¡¡away£»¡¡and¡¡¡¨brought¡¡down¡¡to¡¡the¡¡
sea¡level¡¡in¡¡less¡¡than¡¡4£»500£»000¡¡years£»¡¡if¡¡no¡¡elevation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡land¡¡
takes¡¡place¡£¡¨¡¡¡¡Some¡¡rivers¡¡carry¡¡down¡¡much¡¡more¡¡sediment¡¡relatively¡¡
to¡¡their¡¡size£»¡¡and¡¡some¡¡much¡¡less¡¡than¡¡the¡¡Mississippi¡£
Disintegrated¡¡matter¡¡is¡¡carried¡¡away¡¡by¡¡the¡¡wind¡¡as¡¡well¡¡as¡¡by¡¡
running¡¡water¡£¡¡¡¡During¡¡volcanic¡¡outbursts¡¡much¡¡rock¡¡is¡¡triturated¡¡
and¡¡is¡¡thus¡¡widely¡¡dispersed£»¡¡and¡¡in¡¡all¡¡arid¡¡countries¡¡the¡¡wind¡¡
plays¡¡an¡¡important¡¡part¡¡in¡¡the¡¡removal¡¡of¡¡such¡¡matter¡£¡¡¡¡Wind¡driven¡¡
sand¡¡also¡¡wears¡¡down¡¡the¡¡hardest¡¡rocks¡£¡¡¡¡I¡¡have¡¡shown¡¡£û60£ý¡¡that¡¡
during¡¡four¡¡months¡¡of¡¡the¡¡year¡¡a¡¡large¡¡quantity¡¡of¡¡dust¡¡is¡¡blown¡¡
from¡¡the¡¡north¡western¡¡shores¡¡of¡¡Africa£»¡¡and¡¡falls¡¡on¡¡the¡¡Atlantic¡¡
over¡¡a¡¡space¡¡of¡¡1600¡¡miles¡¡in¡¡latitude£»¡¡and¡¡for¡¡a¡¡distance¡¡of¡¡from¡¡
300¡¡to¡¡600¡¡miles¡¡from¡¡the¡¡coast¡£¡¡¡¡But¡¡dust¡¡has¡¡been¡¡seen¡¡to¡¡fall¡¡at¡¡
a¡¡distance¡¡of¡¡1030¡¡miles¡¡from¡¡the¡¡shores¡¡of¡¡Africa¡£¡¡¡¡During¡¡a¡¡stay¡¡
of¡¡three¡¡weeks¡¡at¡¡St¡£¡¡Jago¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Cape¡¡Verde¡¡Archipelago£»¡¡the¡¡
atmosphere¡¡was¡¡almost¡¡always¡¡hazy£»¡¡and¡¡extremely¡¡fine¡¡dust¡¡coming¡¡
from¡¡Africa¡¡was¡¡continually¡¡falling¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡some¡¡of¡¡this¡¡dust¡¡which¡¡
fell¡¡in¡¡the¡¡open¡¡ocean¡¡at¡¡a¡¡distance¡¡of¡¡between¡¡330¡¡and¡¡380¡¡miles¡¡
from¡¡the¡¡African¡¡coast£»¡¡there¡¡were¡¡many¡¡particles¡¡of¡¡stone£»¡¡about¡¡
1/1000¡¡of¡¡an¡¡inch¡¡square¡£¡¡¡¡Nearer¡¡to¡¡the¡¡coast¡¡the¡¡water¡¡has¡¡been¡¡
seen¡¡to¡¡be¡¡so¡¡much¡¡discoloured¡¡by¡¡the¡¡falling¡¡dust£»¡¡that¡¡a¡¡sailing¡¡
vessel¡¡left¡¡a¡¡track¡¡behind¡¡her¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡countries£»¡¡like¡¡the¡¡Cape¡¡Verde¡¡
Archipelago£»¡¡where¡¡it¡¡seldom¡¡rains¡¡and¡¡there¡¡are¡¡no¡¡frosts£»¡¡the¡¡
solid¡¡rock¡¡nevertheless¡¡disintegrates£»¡¡and¡¡in¡¡conformity¡¡with¡¡the¡¡
views¡¡lately¡¡advanced¡¡by¡¡a¡¡distinguished¡¡Belgian¡¡geologist£»¡¡De¡¡
Koninck£»¡¡such¡¡disintegration¡¡may¡¡be¡¡attributed¡¡in¡¡chief¡¡part¡¡to¡¡the¡¡
action¡¡of¡¡the¡¡carbonic¡¡and¡¡nitric¡¡acids£»¡¡together¡¡with¡¡the¡¡nitrates¡¡
and¡¡nitrites¡¡of¡¡ammonia£»¡¡dissolved¡¡in¡¡the¡¡dew¡£
In¡¡all¡¡humid£»¡¡even¡¡moderately¡¡humid£»¡¡countries£»¡¡worms¡¡aid¡¡in¡¡the¡¡
work¡¡of¡¡denudation¡¡in¡¡several¡¡ways¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡vegetable¡¡mould¡¡which¡¡
covers£»¡¡as¡¡with¡¡a¡¡mantle£»¡¡the¡¡surface¡¡of¡¡the¡¡land£»¡¡has¡¡all¡¡passed¡¡
many¡¡times¡¡through¡¡their¡¡bodies¡£¡¡¡¡Mould¡¡differs¡¡in¡¡appearance¡¡from¡¡
the¡¡subsoil¡¡only¡¡in¡¡its¡¡dark¡¡colour£»¡¡and¡¡in¡¡the¡¡absence¡¡of¡¡
fragments¡¡or¡¡particles¡¡of¡¡stone¡¡£¨when¡¡such¡¡are¡¡present¡¡in¡¡the¡¡
subsoil£©£»¡¡larger¡¡than¡¡those¡¡which¡¡can¡¡pass¡¡through¡¡the¡¡alimentary¡¡
canal¡¡of¡¡a¡¡worm¡£¡¡¡¡This¡¡sifting¡¡of¡¡the¡¡soil¡¡is¡¡aided£»¡¡as¡¡has¡¡already¡¡
been¡¡remarked£»¡¡by¡¡burrowing¡¡animals¡¡of¡¡many¡¡kinds£»¡¡especially¡¡by¡¡
ants¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡countries¡¡where¡¡the¡¡summer¡¡is¡¡long¡¡and¡¡dry£»¡¡the¡¡mould¡¡in¡¡
protected¡¡places¡¡must¡¡be¡¡largely¡¡increased¡¡by¡¡dust¡¡blown¡¡from¡¡other¡¡
and¡¡more¡¡exposed¡¡places¡£¡¡¡¡For¡¡instance£»¡¡the¡¡quantity¡¡of¡¡dust¡¡
sometimes¡¡blown¡¡over¡¡the¡¡plains¡¡of¡¡La¡¡Plata£»¡¡where¡¡there¡¡are¡¡no¡¡
solid¡¡rocks£»¡¡is¡¡so¡¡great£»¡¡that¡¡during¡¡the¡¡¡¨gran¡¡seco£»¡¨¡¡1827¡¡to¡¡
1830£»¡¡the¡¡appearance¡¡of¡¡the¡¡land£»¡¡which¡¡is¡¡here¡¡unenclosed£»¡¡was¡¡so¡¡
completely¡¡changed¡¡that¡¡the¡¡inhabitants¡¡could¡¡not¡¡recognise¡¡the¡¡
limits¡¡of¡¡their¡¡own¡¡estates£»¡¡and¡¡endless¡¡lawsuits¡¡arose¡£¡¡¡¡Immense¡¡
quantities¡¡of¡¡dust¡¡are¡¡likewise¡¡blown¡¡about¡¡in¡¡Egypt¡¡and¡¡in¡¡the¡¡
south¡¡of¡¡France¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡China£»¡¡as¡¡Richthofen¡¡maintains£»¡¡beds¡¡appearing¡¡
like¡¡fine¡¡sediment£»¡¡several¡¡hundred¡¡feet¡¡in¡¡thickness¡¡and¡¡extending¡¡
over¡¡an¡¡enormous¡¡area£»¡¡owe¡¡their¡¡origin¡¡to¡¡dust¡¡blown¡¡from¡¡the¡¡high¡¡
lands¡¡of¡¡central¡¡Asia¡£¡¡£û61£ý¡¡¡¡In¡¡humid¡¡countries¡¡like¡¡Great¡¡Britain£»¡¡
as¡¡long¡¡as¡¡the¡¡land¡¡remains¡¡in¡¡its¡¡natural¡¡state¡¡clothed¡¡with¡¡
vegetation£»¡¡the¡¡mould¡¡in¡¡any¡¡one¡¡place¡¡can¡¡hardly¡¡be¡¡much¡¡increased¡¡
by¡¡dust£»¡¡but¡¡in¡¡its¡¡present¡¡condition£»¡¡the¡¡fields¡¡near¡¡high¡¡roads£»¡¡
where¡¡there¡¡is¡¡much¡¡traffic£»¡¡must¡¡receive¡¡a¡¡considerable¡¡amount¡¡of¡¡
dust£»¡¡and¡¡when¡¡fields¡¡are¡¡harrowed¡¡during¡¡dry¡¡and¡¡windy¡¡weather£»¡¡
clouds¡¡of¡¡dust¡¡may¡¡be¡¡seen¡¡to¡¡be¡¡blown¡¡away¡£¡¡¡¡But¡¡in¡¡all¡¡these¡¡
cases¡¡the¡¡surface¡soil¡¡is¡¡merely¡¡transported¡¡from¡¡one¡¡place¡¡to¡¡
another¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡dust¡¡which¡¡falls¡¡so¡¡thickly¡¡within¡¡our¡¡houses¡¡
consists¡¡largely¡¡of¡¡organic¡¡matter£»¡¡and¡¡if¡¡spread¡¡over¡¡the¡¡land¡¡
would¡¡in¡¡time¡¡decay¡¡and¡¡disappear¡¡almost¡¡entirely¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡appears£»¡¡
however£»¡¡from¡¡recent¡¡observations¡¡on¡¡the¡¡snow¡fields¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Arctic¡¡
regions£»¡¡that¡¡some¡¡little¡¡meteoric¡¡dust¡¡of¡¡extra¡¡mundane¡¡origin¡¡is¡¡
continually¡¡falling¡£
The¡¡dark¡¡colour¡¡of¡¡ordinary¡¡mould¡¡is¡¡obviously¡¡due¡¡to¡¡the¡¡presence¡¡
of¡¡decaying¡¡organic¡¡matter£»¡¡which£»¡¡however£»¡¡is¡¡present¡¡in¡¡but¡¡small¡¡
quantities¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡loss¡¡of¡¡weight¡¡which¡¡mould¡¡suffers¡¡when¡¡heated¡¡to¡¡
redness¡¡seems¡¡to¡¡be¡¡in¡¡large¡¡part¡¡due¡¡to¡¡water¡¡in¡¡combination¡¡being¡¡
dispelled¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡one¡¡sample¡¡of¡¡fertile¡¡mould¡¡the¡¡amount¡¡of¡¡organic¡¡
matter¡¡was¡¡ascertained¡¡to¡¡be¡¡only¡¡1¡£76¡¡per¡¡cent¡££»¡¡in¡¡some¡¡
artificially¡¡prepared¡¡soil¡¡it¡¡was¡¡as¡¡much¡¡as¡¡5¡£5¡¡per¡¡cent¡££»¡¡and¡¡in¡¡
the¡¡famous¡¡black¡¡soil¡¡of¡¡Russia¡¡from¡¡5¡¡to¡¡even¡¡12¡¡per¡¡cent¡£¡¡£û62£ý¡¡¡¡
In¡¡leaf¡mould¡¡formed¡¡exclusively¡¡by¡¡the¡¡decay¡¡of¡¡leaves¡¡the¡¡amount¡¡
is¡¡much¡¡greater£»¡¡and¡¡in¡¡peat¡¡the¡¡carbon¡¡alone¡¡sometimes¡¡amounts¡¡to¡¡
64¡¡per¡¡cent¡££»¡¡but¡¡with¡¡these¡¡latter¡¡cases¡¡we¡¡are¡¡not¡¡here¡¡
concerned¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡carbon¡¡in¡¡the¡¡soil¡¡tends¡¡gradually¡¡to¡¡oxidise¡¡and¡¡
to¡¡disappear£»¡¡except¡¡where¡¡water¡¡accumulates¡¡and¡¡the¡¡climate¡¡is¡¡
cool£»¡¡£û63£ý¡¡so¡¡that¡¡in¡¡the¡¡oldest¡¡pasture¡land¡¡there¡¡is¡¡no¡¡great¡¡
excess¡¡of¡¡organic¡¡matter£»¡¡notwithstanding¡¡the¡¡continued¡¡decay¡¡of¡¡
the¡¡roots¡¡and¡¡the¡¡underground¡¡stems¡¡of¡¡plants£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡occasional¡¡
addition¡¡of¡¡manure¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡disappearance¡¡of¡¡the¡¡organic¡¡matter¡¡from¡¡
mould¡¡is¡¡probably¡¡much¡¡aided¡¡by¡¡its¡¡being¡¡brought¡¡again¡¡and¡¡again¡¡
to¡¡the¡¡surface¡¡in¡¡the¡¡castings¡¡of¡¡worms¡£
Worms£»¡¡on¡¡the¡¡other¡¡hand£»¡¡add¡¡largely¡¡to¡¡the¡¡organic¡¡matter¡¡in¡¡the¡¡
soil¡¡by¡¡the¡¡astonishing¡¡number¡¡of¡¡half¡decayed¡¡leaves¡¡which¡¡they¡¡
draw¡¡into¡¡their¡¡burrows¡¡to¡¡a¡¡depth¡¡of¡¡2¡¡or¡¡3¡¡inches¡£¡¡¡¡They¡¡do¡¡this¡¡
chiefly¡¡for¡¡obtaining¡¡food£»¡¡but¡¡partly¡¡for¡¡closing¡¡the¡¡mouths¡¡of¡¡
their¡¡burrows¡¡and¡¡for¡¡lining¡¡the¡¡upper¡¡part¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡leaves¡¡which¡¡they¡¡
consume¡¡are¡¡moistened£»¡¡torn¡¡into¡¡small¡¡shreds£»¡¡partially¡¡digested£»¡¡
and¡¡intimately¡¡commingled¡¡with¡¡earth£»¡¡and¡¡it¡¡is¡¡this¡¡process¡¡which¡¡
gives¡¡to¡¡vegetable¡¡mould¡¡its¡¡uniform¡¡dark¡¡tint¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡is¡¡known¡¡that¡¡
various¡¡kinds¡¡of¡¡acids¡¡are¡¡generated¡¡by¡¡the¡¡decay¡¡of¡¡vegetable¡¡
matter£»¡¡and¡¡from¡¡the¡¡contents¡¡of¡¡the¡¡intestines¡¡of¡¡worms¡¡and¡¡from¡¡
their¡¡castings¡¡being¡¡acid£»¡¡it¡¡seems¡¡probable¡¡that¡¡the¡¡process¡¡of¡¡
digestion¡¡induces¡¡an¡¡analogous¡¡chemical¡¡change¡¡in¡¡the¡¡swallowed£»¡¡
triturated£»¡¡and¡¡half¡decayed¡¡leaves¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡large¡¡quantity¡¡of¡¡
carbonate¡¡of¡¡lime¡¡secreted¡¡by¡¡the¡¡calciferous¡¡glands¡¡apparently¡¡
serves¡¡to¡¡neutralise¡¡the¡¡acids¡¡thus¡¡generated£»¡¡for¡¡the¡¡digestive¡¡
fluid¡¡of¡¡worms¡¡will¡¡not¡¡act¡¡unless¡¡it¡¡be¡¡alkaline¡£¡¡¡¡As¡¡the¡¡contents¡¡
of¡¡the¡¡upper¡¡part¡¡of¡¡their¡¡intestines¡¡are¡¡acid£»¡¡the¡¡acidity¡¡can¡¡
hardly¡¡be¡¡due¡¡to¡¡the¡¡presence¡¡of¡¡uric¡¡acid¡£¡¡¡¡We¡¡may¡¡therefore¡¡
conclude¡¡that¡¡the¡¡acids¡¡in¡¡the¡¡alimentary¡¡canal¡¡of¡¡worms¡¡are¡¡formed¡¡
during¡¡the¡¡digestive¡¡process£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡probably¡¡they¡¡are¡¡nearly¡¡of¡¡
the¡¡same¡¡nature¡¡as¡¡those¡¡in¡¡ordinary¡¡mould¡¡or¡¡humus¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡latter¡¡
are¡¡well¡¡known¡¡to¡¡have¡¡the¡¡power¡¡of¡¡de¡oxidising¡¡or¡¡dissolving¡¡per¡
oxide¡¡of¡¡iron£»¡¡as¡¡may¡¡be¡¡seen¡¡wherever¡¡peat¡¡overlies¡¡red¡¡sand£»¡¡or¡¡
where¡¡a¡¡rotten¡¡root¡¡penetrates¡¡such¡¡sand¡£¡¡¡¡Now¡¡I¡¡kept¡¡some¡¡worms¡¡in¡¡
a¡¡pot¡¡filled¡¡with¡¡very¡¡fine¡¡reddish¡¡sand£»¡¡consisting¡¡of¡¡minute¡¡
particles¡¡of¡¡silex¡¡coated¡¡with¡¡the¡¡red¡¡oxide¡¡of¡¡iron£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡
burrows£»¡¡which¡¡the¡¡worms¡¡made¡¡through¡¡this¡¡sand£»¡¡were¡¡lined¡¡or¡¡
coated¡¡in¡¡the¡¡usual¡¡manner¡¡with¡¡their¡¡castings£»¡¡formed¡¡of¡¡the¡¡sand¡¡
mingled¡¡with¡¡their¡¡intestinal¡¡secretions¡¡and¡¡the¡¡refuse¡¡of¡¡the¡¡
digested¡¡leaves£»¡¡and¡¡this¡¡sand¡¡had¡¡almost¡¡wholly¡¡lost¡¡its¡¡red¡¡
colour¡£¡¡¡¡When¡¡small¡¡portions¡¡of¡¡it¡¡were¡¡placed¡¡under¡¡the¡¡
microscope£»¡¡most¡¡of¡¡the¡¡grains¡¡were¡¡seen¡¡to¡¡be¡¡transparent¡¡and¡¡
colourless£»¡¡owing¡¡to¡¡the¡¡dissolution¡¡of¡¡the¡¡oxide£»¡¡whilst¡¡almost¡¡
all¡¡the¡¡grains¡¡taken¡¡from¡¡other¡¡parts¡¡of¡¡the¡¡pot¡¡were¡¡coated¡¡with¡¡
the¡¡oxide¡£¡¡¡¡Acetic¡¡acid¡¡produced¡¡hardly¡¡any¡¡effect¡¡on¡¡his¡¡sand£»¡¡and¡¡
even