the foundations of personality-第8节

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character　and　in　directing　the　efforts　and　activity　of　men　is　hardly　exaggerated。　From　birth　to　death　the　pleasure　of　reward　and　praise　and　the　pain　of　punishment　and　blame　are　immensely　powerful　human　motives。　It　is　true　that　now　and　then　individuals　seek　punishment　and　blame；　but　this　is　always　to　win　the　favor　of　others　or　of　the　most　important　observer　of　men's　actions；God；　The　child　is　trained　through　the　effect　of　reward　and　punishment；　praise　and　blame；　and　these　are　used　to　set　up；　on　the　one　hand；　habits　of　conduct；　and　on　the　other　an　inner　mentor　and　guide　called　Conscience。　It　may　be　true　that　conscience　is　innate　in　its　potentialities；　but　whether　that　is　so　or　not；　it　is　the　teaching　and　training　of　the　times　or　of　some　group　that　gives　to　conscience　its　peculiar　trend　in　any　individual　case。　And　before　a　child　has　any　inward　mentor　it　depends　for　its　knowledge　of　right　and　wrong　upon　the　efforts　of　its　parents；　their　use　of　praise…reward　and　blame…punishment；　it　reacts　to　these　measures　in　accordance　with　the　strength　and　vigor　of　its　social　instincts　and　in　accordance　with　its　fear　of　punishment　and　desire　for　reward。　The　feelings　of　duty　and　the　prickings　of　conscience　serve　to　consolidate　a　structure　already　formed。　Here　we　must　discuss　a　matter　of　fundamental　importance　in　character　analysis。　Men　are　not　born　equal　in　any　respect。　This　inequality　extends　to　every　power；　possibility　and　peculiarity　and　has　its　widest　range　in　the　mental　and　character　life。　A　tall　man　is　perhaps　a　foot　taller　than　a　very　short　man；　a　giant　is　perhaps　twice　as　tall　as　a　dwarf。　A　very　fleet　runner　can　〃do〃　a　hundred　yards　in　ten　seconds；　and　there　are　few　except　the　crippled　or　aged　who　cannot　run　the　distance　in　twenty　seconds。　Only　in　the　fables　has　the　hero　the　strength　of　a　dozen　men。　But　where　dexterity　or　knowledge　enters　things　become　different；　and　one　man　can　do　what　the　most　of　men　cannot　even　prepare　to　do。　Where　abstract　thought　or　talent　or　genius　is　involved　the　greatest　human　variability　is　seen。　There　we　have　Pascals　who　are　mathematicians　at　five　and　discoverers　at　sixteen；　there　we　have　Mozarts；　composers　at　three；　there　we　have　our　inspired　boy　preachers　already　consecrated　to　their　great　ideal　of　work；　and　we　have　also　our　Jesse　Pomeroys；　fiendish　murderers　before　adolescence。　I　believe　with　Carlyle　that　it　is　the　heroes；　the　geniuses　of　the　race；　to　whom　we　owe　its　achievements；　and　the　hero　and　the　genius　are　the　men　and　women　of　〃greatest　variability〃　in　powers。　The　first　weapon；　the　starting　of　fire；　the　song　that　became　〃a　folk　song〃　were　created　by　the　prehistoric　geniuses　and　became　the　social　heritage　of　the　group　or　race。　And　〃common　man〃　did　little　to　develop　religions　or　even　superstitions；　he　merely　accepted　the　belief　of　a　leader。　This　digression　is　to　emphasize　that　children　and　the　men　and　women　they　grow　to　be　are　widely　variable　in　their　native　social　feeling；　in　their　response　to　praise；　blame；　reward　and　punishmept。　One　child　eagerly　responds　to　all；　is　moved　by　praise；　loves　reward；　fears　punishment　and　hates　blame。　Another　child　responds　mainly　to　reward；　is　but　little　moved　by　praise；　fears　punishment　and　laughs　at　blame。　Still　another　only　fears　punishment；　while　there　is　a　type　of　deeply　antisocial　nature　which　goes　his　own　way；　seeking　his　own　egoistic　purposes；　uninfluenced　by　the　opinion　of　others；　accepting　reward　cynically　and　fighting　against　punishment。　More　than　that；　each　child　shows　peculiarities　in　the　types　of　praise；　reward；　blame　and　punishment　that　move　him。　Some　children　need　corporal　punishment＇1＇　and　others　who　are　made　rebels　by　it　are　melted　into　conformity　by　ostracism。　＇1＇　It　is　a　wishy…washy　ideal　of　teaching　that　regards　pain　as　equivalent　to　cruelty。　On　the　contrary；　it　may　be　real　cruelty　to　spare　pain；cruelty　to　the　future　of　the　child。　Pain　is　a　great　teacher；　whether　inflicted　by　the　knife　one　has　been　told　not　to　play　with；　or　by　the　parent　when　the　injunction　not　to　play　with　the　knife　has　been　disregarded。

The　distribution　of　praise　and　blame　constitutes　the　distribution　of　public　opinion。　Wherever　public　opinion　is　free　to　exercise　its　power　it　is　a　weapon　of　extraordinary　potency　before　which　almost　nothing　can　stand。　One　might　define　a　free　nation　as　one　where　public　opinion　has　no　limits；＇1＇　where　no　one　is　prevented　from　the　expression　of　belief　about　the　action　of　others；　and　no　one　is　exempted　from　the　pressure　of　opinion。　Conversely　an　autocracy　is　one　where　there　is　but　little　room　for　the　public　use　of　praise　and　but　little　power　to　blame；　especially　in　regard　to　the　rulers。　But　in　all　societies；　whether　free　or　otherwise；　people　are　constantly　praising；　constantly　blaming　one　another；　whether　over　the　teacups　or　the　wine　glasses；　in　the　sewing　circle　or　the　smoking　rooms；　in　the　midst　of　families；　in　the　press；　in　the　great　halls　of　the　states　and　nations。　These　are　〃the　mallets〃　by　which　society　beats　or　attempts　to　beat　individuals　into　the　accepted　shape。　＇1＇　In　fact；　Oliver　Wendell　Holmes　has　defined　as　the　great　object　of　human　society　the　free　growth　and　expression　of　human　thought。　How　far　we　are　from　that　ideal！

Men　and　women　and　children　all　strive　to　be　praised；　if　not　by　their　own　group；　by　some　other　group　or　by　some　generation。　It　is；　therefore；　a　high　achievement　to　introduce　a　new　ideal　of　character　and　personality　to　the　group。　Menwhose　opinion　as　to　desirability　and　praiseworthiness　has　been　the　prepotent　opinionlove　best　of　all　beauty　in　woman。　Therefore；　the　ideal　of　beauty　as　an　achievement　is　a　leading　factor　in　the　character　formation　of　most　girls　and　young　women。　The　first　question　girls　ask　about　one　another　is；　〃Is　she　pretty？〃　and　in　their　criticism　of　one　another　the　personal　appearance　is　the　first　and　most；　important　subject　discussed。　A　personal　beauty　ideal　has　little　value　to　the　character；　in　fact；　it　tends　to　exaggerate　vanity　and　triviality　and　selfishness；　it　leads　away　from　the　higher　aspects　of　reality。　If　you　ask　the　majority　of　women　which　would　they　rather　be；　very　beautiful　or　very　intelligent；　most　will　say　without　question　（in　their　frank　moments）　that　they　would　rather　be　very　beautiful。　Those　who　are　attempting　to　introduce　the　ideal　of　intelligence　as　a　goal　to　women　need　of　course　to　balance　it　with　other　ideals；　but　if　successful　they　will　revolutionize　the　attitude　of　women　toward　life　and　change　the　trend　of　their　character。　Such　ideals　as　beauty　and　wealth；　however；　do　not　acquire　their　imperativeness　unless　at　the　same　time　they　gratify　some　deep…seated　group　of　desires　or　instincts。　Wealth　gives　too　many　things　to　catalogue　here；　but　fundamentally　it　gives　power；　and　so　beauty　which　may　lead　to　wealth　is　always　a　source　of　power；　although　this　power　carries　with　it　danger　to　the　owner。　Mankind　has　been　praising　unselfishness　for　thousands　of　years；　and　all　men　hate　to　be　called　selfish；　but　selfishness　still　rules　in　the　lives　of　most　of　the　people　of　the　world。　Chastity　and　continence　receive　the　praise　of　the　religious　of　the　world；　as　well　as　of　the　ascetic…minded　of　all　types；　yet　the　majority　of　men；　in　theory　accepting　this　ideal；　reject　it　in　practice。　Selfishness　leads　to　self…gratification　and　pleasure；　chastity　imposes　a　burden　on　desire；　and　praise　and　blame　are　in　this　instance　not　powerful　enough　to　control　mankind's　acts；　though　powerful　enough　to　influence　them。　Wherever　social　pressure　and　education　influence　men　and　women　to　conduct　which　is　contrary　to　the　gratification　of　fundamental　desires；　it　causes　an　uneasiness；　an　unhappiness　and　discomfort　upon　which　Graham　Wallas＇1＇　has　laid　great　stress　as　the　balked　desire。　The　history　of　man　is　made　up　of　the　struggle　of　normal　instincts；　emotions　and　purposes　against　the　mistaken　inhibitions　and　prohibitions；　against　mistaken　praise　and　blame；　reward　and　punishment。　Moral　and　ethical　ideals　develop　institutions；　and　these　often　press　too　heavily　upon　the　life　and　activities　of　those　who　accept　them　as　authoritative。　＇1＇　See　his　book　〃The　Great　Society〃　for　a　fine　discussion　of　this　important　matter。

We　have　spoken　as　if　praise　and　blame　invariably　had　the　same　results。　On　the　contrary；　though　in　general　they　tend　to　bring　about　uniformity　and　conformity；　people　vary　remarkably　from　one　another　in　their　reaction　and　the　same　person　is　not　uniform　in　his　reactions。　The　reaction　to　praise　is　on　the　whole　an　increased　happiness　and　vigor；　but　of　course　it　may；　when　undeserved；　demoralize　the　character　and　lead　to　a　foolish　vanity　and　to　inefficiency。　To　those　whose　conscience　is　highly　developed；　undeserved　praise　is　painful　in　that　it　leads　to　a　feeling　that　one　is　deceiving　others。　Speaking　broadly；　this　is　a　rare　reaction。　Most　people　accept　praise　as　their　due；　just　as　they　attribute　success　to　their　merits。＇1＇　The　reaction　to　blame　may　be　anger；　if　the　blame　is　felt　to　be　undeserved；　and　there　are　people　of　irritable　ego　who　respond　in　this　way　to　all　blame　or　even　the　hint　of　adverse　criticism。　The　reaction　may　be　humiliation　and　lowered　self…valuation；　greatly　deenergizing　the　character　and　lowering　efficiency。　There；　again；　though　this　reaction　occurs　in　some　degree　to　all；　others　are　so　constituted　that　all　criticism　or　bla