the story of mankind-第74节

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their　members　the　hours　during　which　they　could　work　and

the　wages　which　they　must　demand。　The　workman　must　at

all　times；　be　‘‘free　to　sell　his　services　in　the　open　market；''　and

the　employer　must　be　equally　‘‘free''　to　conduct　his　business

as　he　saw　fit。　The　days　of　the　Mercantile　System；　when

the　state　had　regulated　the　industrial　life　of　the　entire

community；　were　coming　to　an　end。　The　new　idea　of　‘‘freedom''

insisted　that　the　state　stand　entirely　aside　and　let　commerce

take　its　course。



The　last　half　of　the　18th　century　had　not　merely　been　a

time　of　intellectual　and　political　doubt；　but　the　old　economic

ideas；　too；　had　been　replaced　by　new　ones　which　better　suited　the

need　of　the　hour。　Several　years　before　the　French　revolution；

Turgot；　who　had　been　one　of　the　unsuccessful　ministers　of

finance　of　Louis　XVI；　had　preached　the　novel　doctrine　of

‘‘economic　liberty。''　Turgot　lived　in　a　country　which　had

suffered　from　too　much　red…tape；　too　many　regulations；　too

many　officials　trying　to　enforce　too　many　laws。　‘‘Remove　this

official　supervision；''　he　wrote；　‘‘let　the　people　do　as　they　please；

and　everything　will　be　all　right。''　Soon　his　famous　advice　of

‘‘laissez　faire''　became　the　battle…cry　around　which　the　economists

of　that　period　rallied；



At　the　same　time　in　England；　Adam　Smith　was　working

on　his　mighty　volumes　on　the　‘‘Wealth　of　Nations；''　which　made

another　plea　for　‘‘liberty''　and　the　‘‘natural　rights　of　trade。''

Thirty　years　later；　after　the　fall　of　Napoleon；　when　the　reactionary

powers　of　Europe　had　gained　their　victory　at　Vienna；

that　same　freedom　which　was　denied　to　the　people　in　their

political　relations　was　forced　upon　them　in　their　industrial

life。



The　general　use　of　machinery；　as　I　have　said　at　the　beginning

of　this　chapter；　proved　to　be　of　great　advantage　to　the

state。　Wealth　increased　rapidly。　The　machine　made　it　possible

for　a　single　country；　like　England；　to　carry　all　the　burdens

of　the　great　Napoleonic　wars。　The　capitalists　（the　people

who　provided　the　money　with　which　machines　were　bought）

reaped　enormous　profits。　They　became　ambitious　and　began

to　take　an　interest　in　politics。　They　tried　to　compete　with　the

landed　aristocracy　which　still　exercised　great　influence　upon

the　government　of　most　European　countries。



In　England；　where　the　members　of　Parliament　were　still

elected　according　to　a　Royal　Decree　of　the　year　1265；　and

where　a　large　number　of　recently　created　industrial　centres　were

without　representation；　they　brought　about　the　passing　of　the

Reform　Bill　of　the　year　1882；　which　changed　the　electoral

system　and　gave　the　class　of　the　factory…owners　more　influence

upon　the　legislative　body。　This　however　caused　great

discontent　among　the　millions　of　factory　workers；　who　were

left　without　any　voice　in　the　government。　They　too　began

an　agitation　for　the　right　to　vote。　They　put　their　demands

down　in　a　document　which　came　to　be　known　as　the　‘‘People's

Charter。''　The　debates　about　this　charter　grew　more　and

more　violent。　They　had　not　yet　come　to　an　end　when　the　revolutions

of　the　year　1848　broke　out。　Frightened　by　the　threat

of　a　new　outbreak　or　Jacobinism　and　violence；　the　English

government　placed　the　Duke　of　Wellington；　who　was　now　in

his　eightieth　year；　at　the　head　of　the　army；　and　called　for

Volunteers。　London　was　placed　in　a　state　of　siege　and

preparations　were　made　to　suppress　the　coming　revolution。



But　the　Chartist　movement　killed　itself　through　bad　leadership

and　no　acts　of　violence　took　place。　The　new　class　of

wealthy　factory　owners；　（I　dislike　the　word　‘‘bourgeoisie''

which　has　been　used　to　death　by　the　apostles　of　a　new　social

order；）　slowly　increased　its　hold　upon　the　government；　and

the　conditions　of　industrial　life　in　the　large　cities　continued　to

transform　vast　acres　of　pasture　and　wheat…land　into　dreary

slums；　which　guard　the　approach　of　every　modern　European

town。







EMANCIPATION



THE　GENERAL　INTRODUCTION　OF　MACHINERY

DID　NOT　BRING　ABOUT　THE　ERA　OF

HAPPINESS　AND　PROSPERITY　WHICH

HAD　BEEN　PREDICTED　BY　THE　GENERATION

WHICH　SAW　THE　STAGE　COACH　REPLACED

BY　THE　RAILROAD。　SEVERAL

REMEDIES　WERE　SUGGESTED　BUT　NONE

OF　THESE　QUITE　SOLVED　THE　PROBLEM





IN　the　year　1831；　just　before　the　passing　of　the　first　Reform

Bill　Jeremy　Bentham；　the　great　English　student　of　legislative

methods　and　the　most　practical　political　reformer　of　that

day；　wrote　to　a　friend：　‘‘The　way　to　be　comfortable　is　to

make　others　comfortable。　The　way　to　make　others　comfortable

is　to　appear　to　love　them。　The　way　to　appear　to　love　them

is　to　love　them　in　reality。''　Jeremy　was　an　honest　man。　He

said　what　he　believed　to　be　true。　His　opinions　were　shared　by

thousands　of　his　countrymen。　They　felt　responsible　for　the

happiness　of　their　less　fortunate　neighbours　and　they　tried

their　very　best　to　help　them。　And　Heaven　knows　it　was　time

that　something　be　done！



The　ideal　of　‘‘economic　freedom''　（the　‘‘laissez　faire''　of

Turgot）　had　been　necessary　in　the　old　society　where　mediaeval

restrictions　lamed　all　industrial　effort。　But　this　‘‘liberty　of

action''　which　had　been　the　highest　law　of　the　land　had　led　to

a　terrible；　yea；　a　frightful　condition。　The　hours　in　the　fac…

tory　were　limited　only　by　the　physical　strength　of　the　workers。

As　long　as　a　woman　could　sit　before　her　loom；　without

fainting　from　fatigue；　she　was　supposed　to　work。　Children　of

five　and　six　were　taken　to　the　cotton　mills；　to　save　them　from

the　dangers　of　the　street　and　a　life　of　idleness。　A　law　had

been　passed　which　forced　the　children　of　paupers　to　go　to　work

or　be　punished　by　being　chained　to　their　machines。　In　return

for　their　services　they　got　enough　bad　food　to　keep　them　alive

and　a　sort　of　pigsty　in　which　they　could　rest　at　night。　Often

they　were　so　tired　that　they　fell　asleep　at　their　job。　To　keep

them　awake　a　foreman　with　a　whip　made　the　rounds　and　beat

them　on　the　knuckles　when　it　was　necessary　to　bring　them　back

to　their　duties。　Of　course；　under　these　circumstances　thousands

of　little　children　died。　This　was　regrettable　and　the　employers；

who　after　all　were　human　beings　and　not　without　a　heart；　sincerely

wished　that　they　could　abolish　‘‘child　labour。''　But　since

man　was　‘‘free''　it　followed　that　children　were　‘‘free''　too。

Besides；　if　Mr。　Jones　had　tried　to　work　his　factory　without　the

use　of　children　of　five　and　six；　his　rival；　Mr。　Stone；　would　have

hired　an　extra　supply　of　little　boys　and　Jones　would　have　been

forced　into　bankruptcy。　It　was　therefore　impossible　for　Jones

to　do　without　child　labour　until　such　time　as　an　act　of　Parliament

should　forbid　it　for　all　employers。



But　as　Parliament　was　no　longer　dominated　by　the　old

landed　aristocracy　（which　had　despised　the　upstart　factory…

owners　with　their　money　bags　and　had　treated　them　with　open

contempt）；　but　was　under　control　of　the　representatives　from

the　industrial　centres；　and　as　long　as　the　law　did　not　allow

workmen　to　combine　in　labour…unions；　very　little　was　accomplished。

Of　course　the　intelligent　and　decent　people　of　that

time　were　not　blind　to　these　terrible　conditions。　They　were

just　helpless。　Machinery　had　conquered　the　world　by　surprise

and　it　took　a　great　many　years　and　the　efforts　of　thousands

of　noble　men　and　women　to　make　the　machine　what　it

ought　to　be；　man's　servant；　and　not　his　master。



Curiously　enough；　the　first　attack　upon　the　outrageous

system　of　employment　which　was　then　common　in　all　parts　of

the　world；　was　made　on　behalf　of　the　black　slaves　of　Africa

and　America。　Slavery　had　been　introduced　into　the　American

continent　by　the　Spaniards。　They　had　tried　to　use　the

Indians　as　labourers　in　the　fields　and　in　the　mines；　but　the

Indians；　when　taken　away　from　a　life　in　the　open；　had　lain　down

and　died　and　to　save　them　from　extinction　a　kind…hearted　priest

had　suggested　that　negroes　be　brought　from　Africa　to　do　the

work。　The　negroes　were　strong　and　could　stand　rough　treatment。

Besides；　association　with　the　white　man　would　give

them　a　chance　to　learn　Christianity　and　in　this　way；　they　would

be　able　to　save　their　souls；　and　so　from　every　possible　point　of

view；　it　would　be　an　excellent　arrangement　both　for　the　kindly

white　man　and　for　his　ignorant　black　brother。　But　with　the

introduction　of　machinery　there　had　been　a　greater　demand　for

cotton　and　the　negroes　were　forced　to　work　harder　than　ever

before；　and　they　too；　like　the　Indians；　began　to　die　under　the

treatment　which　they　received　at　the　hands　of　the　overseers。



Stories　of　incredible　cruelty　constantly　found　their　way　to

Europe　and　in　all　countries　men　and　women　began　to　agitate

for　the　abolition　of　slavery。　In　England；　William　Wilberforce

and　Zachary　Macaulay；　（the　father　of　the　great　historian　whose

history　of　England　you　must　read　if　you　want　to　know　how

wonderfully　interesting　a　history…book　can　be；）　organised　a

society　for　the　suppression　of　slavery。　First