the story of mankind-第53节

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for　the　benefit　of　the　Tartar　treasury。



The　state　of　Moscow；　growing　fat　at　the　expense　of　the

surrounding　territory；　finally　became　strong　enough　to　risk

open　rebellion　against　its　masters；　the　Tartars。　It　was　successful

and　its　fame　as　the　leader　in　the　cause　of　Russian　independence

made　Moscow　the　natural　centre　for　all　those　who

still　believed　in　a　better　future　for　the　Slavic　race。　In　the　year

1458；　Constantinople　was　taken　by　the　Turks。　Ten　years

later；　under　the　rule　of　Ivan　III；　Moscow　informed　the

western　world　that　the　Slavic　state　laid　claim　to　the　worldly

and　spiritual　inheritance　of　the　lost　Byzantine　Empire；　and

such　traditions　of　the　Roman　empire　as　had　survived　in

Constantinople。　A　generation　afterwards；　under　Ivan　the　Terrible；

the　grand　dukes　of　Moscow　were　strong　enough　to　adopt　the

title　of　Caesar；　or　Tsar；　and　to　demand　recognition　by　the　western

powers　of　Europe。



In　the　year　1598；　with　Feodor　the　First；　the　old　Muscovite

dynasty；　descendants　of　the　original　Norseman　Rurik；　came　to

an　end。　For　the　next　seven　years；　a　Tartar　half…breed；　by　the

name　of　Boris　Godunow；　reigned　as　Tsar。　It　was　during

this　period　that　the　future　destiny　of　the　large　masses　of　the

Russian　people　was　decided。　This　Empire　was　rich　in　land

but　very　poor　in　money。　There　was　no　trade　and　there　were

no　factories。　Its　few　cities　were　dirty　villages。　It　was　composed

of　a　strong　central　government　and　a　vast　number　of

illiterate　peasants。　This　government；　a　mixture　of　Slavic；

Norse；　Byzantine　and　Tartar　influences；　recognised　nothing

beyond　the　interest　of　the　state。　To　defend　this　state；　it

needed　an　army。　To　gather　the　taxes；　which　were　necessary

to　pay　the　soldiers；　it　needed　civil　servants。　To　pay　these　many

officials　it　needed　land。　In　the　vast　wilderness　on　the　east

and　west　there　was　a　sufficient　supply　of　this　commodity。　But

land　without　a　few　labourers　to　till　the　fields　and　tend　the

cattle；　has　no　value。　Therefore　the　old　nomadic　peasants

were　robbed　of　one　privilege　after　the　other；　until　finally；　during

the　first　year　of　the　sixteenth　century；　they　were　formally

made　a　part　of　the　soil　upon　which　they　lived。　The　Russian

peasants　ceased　to　be　free　men。　They　became　serfs　or　slaves

and　they　remained　serfs　until　the　year　1861；　when　their　fate

had　become　so　terrible　that　they　were　beginning　to　die　out。



In　the　seventeenth　century；　this　new　state　with　its　growing

territory　which　was　spreading　quickly　into　Siberia；　had　become

a　force　with　which　the　rest　of　Europe　was　obliged　to

reckon。　In　1618；　after　the　death　of　Boris　Godunow；　the

Russian　nobles　had　elected　one　of　their　own　number　to　be

Tsar。　He　was　Michael；　the　son　of　Feodor；　of　the　Moscow　family

of　Romanow　who　lived　in　a　little　house　just　outside　the

Kremlin。



In　the　year　1672　his　great…grandson；　Peter；　the　son　of　another

Feodor；　was　born。　When　the　child　was　ten　years　old；

his　step…sister　Sophia　took　possession　of　the　Russian　throne。

The　little　boy　was　allowed　to　spend　his　days　in　the　suburbs　of

the　national　capital；　where　the　foreigners　lived。　Surrounded

by　Scotch　barkeepers；　Dutch　traders；　Swiss　apothecaries；　Italian

barbers；　French　dancing　teachers　and　German　school…masters；

the　young　prince　obtained　a　first　but　rather　extraordinary

impression　of　that　far…away　and　mysterious　Europe　where

things　were　done　differently。



When　he　was　seventeen　years　old；　he　suddenly　pushed

Sister　Sophia　from　the　throne。　Peter　himself　became　the　ruler

of　Russia。　He　was　not　contented　with　being　the　Tsar　of　a

semi…barbarous　and　half…Asiatic　people。　He　must　be　the　sovereign

head　of　a　civilised　nation。　To　change　Russia　overnight

from　a　Byzantine…Tartar　state　into　a　European　empire　was　no

small　undertaking。　It　needed　strong　hands　and　a　capable

head。　Peter　possessed　both。　In　the　year　1698；　the　great

operation　of　grafting　Modern　Europe　upon　Ancient　Russia　was

performed。　The　patient　did　not　die。　But　he　never　got　over

the　shock；　as　the　events　of　the　last　five　years　have　shown　very

plainly。







RUSSIA　vs。　SWEDEN



RUSSIA　AND　SWEDEN　FIGHT　MANY　WARS　TO

DECIDE　WHO　SHALL　BE　THE　LEADING

POWER　OF　NORTH…EASTERN　EUROPE





IN　the　year　1698；　Tsar　Peter　set　forth　upon　his　first

voyage　to　western　Europe。　He　travelled　by　way　of　Berlin　and

went　to　Holland　and　to　England。　As　a　child　he　had　almost

been　drowned　sailing　a　homemade　boat　in　the　duck　pond　of

his　father's　country　home。　This　passion　for　water　remained

with　him　to　the　end　of　his　life。　In　a　practical　way　it　showed

itself　in　his　wish　to　give　his　land…locked　domains　access　to

the　open　sea。



While　the　unpopular　and　harsh　young　ruler　was　away

from　home；　the　friends　of　the　old　Russian　ways　in　Moscow　set

to　work　to　undo　all　his　reforms。　A　sudden　rebellion　among

his　life…guards；　the　Streltsi　regiment；　forced　Peter　to　hasten

home　by　the　fast　mail。　He　appointed　himself　executioner…in…

chief　and　the　Streltsi　were　hanged　and　quartered　and　killed　to

the　last　man。　Sister　Sophia；　who　had　been　the　head　of　the

rebellion；　was　locked　up　in　a　cloister　and　the　rule　of　Peter　be…

gan　in　earnest。　This　scene　was　repeated　in　the　year　1716　when

Peter　had　gone　on　his　second　western　trip。　That　time　the

reactionaries　followed　the　leadership　of　Peter's　half…witted

son；　Alexis。　Again　the　Tsar　returned　in　great　haste。　Alexis

was　beaten　to　death　in　his　prison　cell　and　the　friends　of　the

old　fashioned　Byzantine　ways　marched　thousands　of　dreary

miles　to　their　final　destination　in　the　Siberian　lead　mines。

After　that；　no　further　outbreaks　of　popular　discontent　took

place。　Until　the　time　of　his　death；　Peter　could　reform　in　peace。



It　is　not　easy　to　give　you　a　list　of　his　reforms　in　chronological

order。　The　Tsar　worked　with　furious　haste。　He　followed

no　system。　He　issued　his　decrees　with　such　rapidity　that　it　is

difficult　to　keep　count。　Peter　seemed　to　feel　that　everything

that　had　ever　happened　before　was　entirely　wrong。　The　whole

of　Russia　therefore　must　be　changed　within　the　shortest　possible

time。　When　he　died　he　left　behind　a　well…trained　army　of

200；000　men　and　a　navy　of　fifty　ships。　The　old　system　of　government

had　been　abolished　over　night。　The　Duma；　or　convention

of　Nobles；　had　been　dismissed　and　in　its　stead；　the　Tsar

had　surrounded　himself　with　an　advisory　board　of　state　officials；

called　the　Senate。



Russia　was　divided　into　eight　large　‘‘governments''　or　provinces。

Roads　were　constructed。　Towns　were　built。　Industries

were　created　wherever　it　pleased　the　Tsar；　without　any　regard

for　the　presence　of　raw　material。　Canals　were　dug　and　mines

were　opened　in　the　mountains　of　the　east。　In　this　land　of　illiterates；

schools　were　founded　and　establishments　of　higher　learning；

together　with　Universities　and　hospitals　and　professional

schools。　Dutch　naval　engineers　and　tradesmen　and　artisans

from　all　over　the　world　were　encouraged　to　move　to　Russia。

Printing　shops　were　established；　but　all　books　must　be　first　read

by　the　imperial　censors。　The　duties　of　each　class　of　society

were　carefully　written　down　in　a　new　law　and　the　entire　system

of　civil　and　criminal　laws　was　gathered　into　a　series　of　printed

volumes。　The　old　Russian　costumes　were　abolished　by　Imperial

decree；　and　policemen；　armed　with　scissors；　watching

all　the　country　roads；　changed　the　long…haired　Russian　mou…

jiks　suddenly　into　a　pleasing　imitation　of　smooth…shaven　west。

Europeans。



In　religious　matters；　the　Tsar　tolerated　no　division　of

power。　There　must　be　no　chance　of　a　rivalry　between　an

Emperor　and　a　Pope　as　had　happened　in　Europe。　In　the　year

1721；　Peter　made　himself　head　of　the　Russian　Church。　The

Patriarchate　of　Moscow　was　abolished　and　the　Holy　Synod

made　its　appearance　as　the　highest　source　of　authority　in　all

matters　of　the　Established　Church。



Since；　however；　these　many　reforms　could　not　be　success…

ful　while　the　old　Russian　elements　had　a　rallying　point　in　the

town　of　Moscow；　Peter　decided　to　move　his　government　to　a

new　capital。　Amidst　the　unhealthy　marshes　of　the　Baltic　Sea

the　Tsar　built　this　new　city。　He　began　to　reclaim　the　land　in

the　year　1703。　Forty　thousand　peasants　worked　for　years

to　lay　the　foundations　for　this　Imperial　city。　The　Swedes

attacked　Peter　and　tried　to　destroy　his　town　and　illness　and

misery　killed　tens　of　thousands　of　the　peasants。　But　the　work

was　continued；　winter　and　summer；　and　the　ready…made　town

soon　began　to　grow。　In　the　year　1712；　it　was　officially　de…

clared　to　be　the　‘‘Imperial　Residence。''　A　dozen　years　later

it　had　75；000　inhabitants。　Twice　a　year　the　whole　city　was

flooded　by　the　Neva。　But　the　terrific　will…power　of　the　Tsar

created　dykes　and　canals　and　the　floods　ceased　to　do　harm。

When　Peter　died　in　1725　he　was　the　owner　of　the　largest　city

in　northern　Europe。



Of　course；　this　sudden　growth　of　so　dangerous　a　rival　had

been　a　source　of　great　worry　to　all　the　neighbours。　From　his

side；　Peter　had　watc