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С˵£º the story of mankind ×ÖÊý£º ÿҳ4000×Ö

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the¡¡Cabinet¡¡got¡¡into¡¡the¡¡habit¡¡of¡¡ruling¡¡England¡¡and¡¡Scotland

£¨whose¡¡Parliament¡¡had¡¡been¡¡joined¡¡to¡¡that¡¡of¡¡England

in¡¡1707£©¡¡without¡¡bothering¡¡the¡¡King£»¡¡who¡¡was¡¡apt¡¡to¡¡spend

a¡¡great¡¡deal¡¡of¡¡his¡¡time¡¡on¡¡the¡¡continent¡£



During¡¡the¡¡reign¡¡of¡¡George¡¡I¡¡and¡¡George¡¡II£»¡¡a¡¡succession¡¡of

great¡¡Whigs¡¡£¨of¡¡whom¡¡one£»¡¡Sir¡¡Robert¡¡Walpole£»¡¡held¡¡office¡¡for

twenty¡­one¡¡years£©¡¡formed¡¡the¡¡Cabinet¡¡Council¡¡of¡¡the¡¡King¡£

Their¡¡leader¡¡was¡¡finally¡¡recognised¡¡as¡¡the¡¡official¡¡leader¡¡not

only¡¡of¡¡the¡¡actual¡¡Cabinet¡¡but¡¡also¡¡of¡¡the¡¡majority¡¡party¡¡in

power¡¡in¡¡Parliament¡£¡¡The¡¡attempts¡¡of¡¡George¡¡III¡¡to¡¡take

matters¡¡into¡¡his¡¡own¡¡hands¡¡and¡¡not¡¡to¡¡leave¡¡the¡¡actual¡¡business

of¡¡government¡¡to¡¡his¡¡Cabinet¡¡were¡¡so¡¡disastrous¡¡that

they¡¡were¡¡never¡¡repeated¡£¡¡And¡¡from¡¡the¡¡earliest¡¡years¡¡of¡¡the

eighteenth¡¡century¡¡on£»¡¡England¡¡enjoyed¡¡representative¡¡government£»

with¡¡a¡¡responsible¡¡ministry¡¡which¡¡conducted¡¡the¡¡affairs

of¡¡the¡¡land¡£



To¡¡be¡¡quite¡¡true£»¡¡this¡¡government¡¡did¡¡not¡¡represent¡¡all

classes¡¡of¡¡society¡£¡¡Less¡¡than¡¡one¡¡man¡¡in¡¡a¡¡dozen¡¡had¡¡the¡¡right

to¡¡vote¡£¡¡But¡¡it¡¡was¡¡the¡¡foundation¡¡for¡¡the¡¡modern¡¡representative

form¡¡of¡¡government¡£¡¡In¡¡a¡¡quiet¡¡and¡¡orderly¡¡fashion¡¡it

took¡¡the¡¡power¡¡away¡¡from¡¡the¡¡King¡¡and¡¡placed¡¡it¡¡in¡¡the¡¡hands

of¡¡an¡¡ever¡¡increasing¡¡number¡¡of¡¡popular¡¡representatives¡£¡¡It¡¡did

not¡¡bring¡¡the¡¡millenium¡¡to¡¡England£»¡¡but¡¡it¡¡saved¡¡that¡¡country

from¡¡most¡¡of¡¡the¡¡revolutionary¡¡outbreaks¡¡which¡¡proved¡¡so

disastrous¡¡to¡¡the¡¡European¡¡continent¡¡in¡¡the¡¡eighteenth¡¡and

nineteenth¡¡centuries¡£







THE¡¡BALANCE¡¡OF¡¡POWER



IN¡¡FRANCE¡¡ON¡¡THE¡¡OTHER¡¡HAND¡¡THE¡¡¡®¡®DIVINE

RIGHT¡¡OF¡¡KINGS''¡¡CONTINUED¡¡WITH

GREATER¡¡POMP¡¡AND¡¡SPLENDOUR¡¡THAN

EVER¡¡BEFORE¡¡AND¡¡THE¡¡AMBITION¡¡OF

THE¡¡RULER¡¡WAS¡¡ONLY¡¡TEMPERED¡¡BY

THE¡¡NEWLY¡¡INVENTED¡¡LAW¡¡OF¡¡THE

¡®¡®BALANCE¡¡OF¡¡POWER''





As¡¡a¡¡contrast¡¡to¡¡the¡¡previous¡¡chapter£»¡¡let¡¡me¡¡tell¡¡you¡¡what

happened¡¡in¡¡France¡¡during¡¡the¡¡years¡¡when¡¡the¡¡English¡¡people

were¡¡fighting¡¡for¡¡their¡¡liberty¡£¡¡The¡¡happy¡¡combination

of¡¡the¡¡right¡¡man¡¡in¡¡the¡¡right¡¡country¡¡at¡¡the¡¡right¡¡moment¡¡is¡¡very

rare¡¡in¡¡History¡£¡¡Louis¡¡XIV¡¡was¡¡a¡¡realisation¡¡of¡¡this¡¡ideal£»¡¡as

far¡¡as¡¡France¡¡was¡¡concerned£»¡¡but¡¡the¡¡rest¡¡of¡¡Europe¡¡would

have¡¡been¡¡happier¡¡without¡¡him¡£



The¡¡country¡¡over¡¡which¡¡the¡¡young¡¡king¡¡was¡¡called¡¡to¡¡rule

was¡¡the¡¡most¡¡populous¡¡and¡¡the¡¡most¡¡brilliant¡¡nation¡¡of¡¡that

day¡£¡¡Louis¡¡came¡¡to¡¡the¡¡throne¡¡when¡¡Mazarin¡¡and¡¡Richelieu£»

the¡¡two¡¡great¡¡Cardinals£»¡¡had¡¡just¡¡hammered¡¡the¡¡ancient¡¡French

Kingdom¡¡into¡¡the¡¡most¡¡strongly¡¡centralised¡¡state¡¡of¡¡the¡¡seventeenth

century¡£¡¡He¡¡was¡¡himself¡¡a¡¡man¡¡of¡¡extraordinary¡¡ability¡£

We£»¡¡the¡¡people¡¡of¡¡the¡¡twentieth¡¡century£»¡¡are¡¡still

surrounded¡¡by¡¡the¡¡memories¡¡of¡¡the¡¡glorious¡¡age¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Sun¡¡King¡£

Our¡¡social¡¡life¡¡is¡¡based¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡perfection¡¡of¡¡manners¡¡and¡¡the

elegance¡¡of¡¡expression¡¡attained¡¡at¡¡the¡¡court¡¡of¡¡Louis¡£¡¡In

international¡¡and¡¡diplomatic¡¡relations£»¡¡French¡¡is¡¡still¡¡the¡¡official

language¡¡of¡¡diplomacy¡¡and¡¡international¡¡gatherings¡¡because

two¡¡centuries¡¡ago¡¡it¡¡reached¡¡a¡¡polished¡¡elegance¡¡and¡¡a¡¡purity

of¡¡expression¡¡which¡¡no¡¡other¡¡tongue¡¡had¡¡as¡¡yet¡¡been¡¡able¡¡to

equal¡£¡¡The¡¡theatre¡¡of¡¡King¡¡Louis¡¡still¡¡teaches¡¡us¡¡lessons

which¡¡we¡¡are¡¡only¡¡too¡¡slow¡¡in¡¡learning¡£¡¡During¡¡his¡¡reign¡¡the

French¡¡Academy¡¡£¨an¡¡invention¡¡of¡¡Richelieu£©¡¡came¡¡to¡¡occupy

a¡¡position¡¡in¡¡the¡¡world¡¡of¡¡letters¡¡which¡¡other¡¡countries¡¡have

flattered¡¡by¡¡their¡¡imitation¡£¡¡We¡¡might¡¡continue¡¡this¡¡list¡¡for

many¡¡pages¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡no¡¡matter¡¡of¡¡mere¡¡chance¡¡that¡¡our¡¡modern

bill¡­of¡­fare¡¡is¡¡printed¡¡in¡¡French¡£¡¡The¡¡very¡¡difficult¡¡art¡¡of

decent¡¡cooking£»¡¡one¡¡of¡¡the¡¡highest¡¡expressions¡¡of¡¡civilisation£»

was¡¡first¡¡practiced¡¡for¡¡the¡¡benefit¡¡of¡¡the¡¡great¡¡Monarch¡£¡¡The

age¡¡of¡¡Louis¡¡XIV¡¡was¡¡a¡¡time¡¡of¡¡splendour¡¡and¡¡grace¡¡which¡¡can

still¡¡teach¡¡us¡¡a¡¡lot¡£



Unfortunately¡¡this¡¡brilliant¡¡picture¡¡has¡¡another¡¡side¡¡which

was¡¡far¡¡less¡¡encouraging¡£¡¡Glory¡¡abroad¡¡too¡¡often¡¡means

misery¡¡at¡¡home£»¡¡and¡¡France¡¡was¡¡no¡¡exception¡¡to¡¡this¡¡rule

Louis¡¡XIV¡¡succeeded¡¡his¡¡father¡¡in¡¡the¡¡year¡¡1643¡£¡¡He¡¡died¡¡in

the¡¡year¡¡1715¡£¡¡That¡¡means¡¡that¡¡the¡¡government¡¡of¡¡France

was¡¡in¡¡the¡¡hands¡¡of¡¡one¡¡single¡¡man¡¡for¡¡seventy¡­two¡¡years£»

almost¡¡two¡¡whole¡¡generations¡£



It¡¡will¡¡be¡¡well¡¡to¡¡get¡¡a¡¡firm¡¡grasp¡¡of¡¡this¡¡idea£»¡¡¡®¡®one¡¡single

man¡£''¡¡Louis¡¡was¡¡the¡¡first¡¡of¡¡a¡¡long¡¡list¡¡of¡¡monarchs¡¡who¡¡in

many¡¡countries¡¡established¡¡that¡¡particular¡¡form¡¡of¡¡highly¡¡efficient

autocracy¡¡which¡¡we¡¡call¡¡¡®¡®enlightened¡¡despotism¡£''¡¡He

did¡¡not¡¡like¡¡kings¡¡who¡¡merely¡¡played¡¡at¡¡being¡¡rulers¡¡and

turned¡¡official¡¡affairs¡¡into¡¡a¡¡pleasant¡¡picnic¡£¡¡The¡¡Kings¡¡of

that¡¡enlightened¡¡age¡¡worked¡¡harder¡¡than¡¡any¡¡of¡¡their¡¡subjects¡£

They¡¡got¡¡up¡¡earlier¡¡and¡¡went¡¡to¡¡bed¡¡later¡¡than¡¡anybody¡¡else£»

and¡¡felt¡¡their¡¡¡®¡®divine¡¡responsibility''¡¡quite¡¡as¡¡strongly¡¡as¡¡their

¡®¡®divine¡¡right''¡¡which¡¡allowed¡¡them¡¡to¡¡rule¡¡without¡¡consulting

their¡¡subjects¡£



Of¡¡course£»¡¡the¡¡king¡¡could¡¡not¡¡attend¡¡to¡¡everything¡¡in¡¡person¡£

He¡¡was¡¡obliged¡¡to¡¡surround¡¡himself¡¡with¡¡a¡¡few¡¡helpers

and¡¡councillors¡£¡¡One¡¡or¡¡two¡¡generals£»¡¡some¡¡experts¡¡upon¡¡foreign

politics£»¡¡a¡¡few¡¡clever¡¡financiers¡¡and¡¡economists¡¡would¡¡do

for¡¡this¡¡purpose¡£¡¡But¡¡these¡¡dignitaries¡¡could¡¡act¡¡only¡¡through

their¡¡Sovereign¡£¡¡They¡¡had¡¡no¡¡individual¡¡existence¡£¡¡To¡¡the

mass¡¡of¡¡the¡¡people£»¡¡the¡¡Sovereign¡¡actually¡¡represented¡¡in¡¡his

own¡¡sacred¡¡person¡¡the¡¡government¡¡of¡¡their¡¡country¡£¡¡The

glory¡¡of¡¡the¡¡common¡¡fatherland¡¡became¡¡the¡¡glory¡¡of¡¡a¡¡single

dynasty¡£¡¡It¡¡meant¡¡the¡¡exact¡¡opposite¡¡of¡¡our¡¡own¡¡American

ideal¡£¡¡France¡¡was¡¡ruled¡¡of¡¡and¡¡by¡¡and¡¡for¡¡the¡¡House¡¡of¡¡Bourbon¡£



The¡¡disadvantages¡¡of¡¡such¡¡a¡¡system¡¡are¡¡clear¡£¡¡The¡¡King

grew¡¡to¡¡be¡¡everything¡£¡¡Everybody¡¡else¡¡grew¡¡to¡¡be¡¡nothing¡¡at

all¡£¡¡The¡¡old¡¡and¡¡useful¡¡nobility¡¡was¡¡gradually¡¡forced¡¡to¡¡give

up¡¡its¡¡former¡¡shares¡¡in¡¡the¡¡government¡¡of¡¡the¡¡provinces¡£¡¡A¡¡little

Royal¡¡bureaucrat£»¡¡his¡¡fingers¡¡splashed¡¡with¡¡ink£»¡¡sitting¡¡behind

the¡¡greenish¡¡windows¡¡of¡¡a¡¡government¡¡building¡¡in¡¡faraway

Paris£»¡¡now¡¡performed¡¡the¡¡task¡¡which¡¡a¡¡hundred¡¡years

before¡¡had¡¡been¡¡the¡¡duty¡¡of¡¡the¡¡feudal¡¡Lord¡£¡¡The¡¡feudal¡¡Lord£»

deprived¡¡of¡¡all¡¡work£»¡¡moved¡¡to¡¡Paris¡¡to¡¡amuse¡¡himself¡¡as¡¡best

he¡¡could¡¡at¡¡the¡¡court¡£¡¡Soon¡¡his¡¡estates¡¡began¡¡to¡¡suffer¡¡from

that¡¡very¡¡dangerous¡¡economic¡¡sickness£»¡¡known¡¡as¡¡¡®¡®Absentee

Landlordism¡£''¡¡Within¡¡a¡¡single¡¡generation£»¡¡the¡¡industrious

and¡¡useful¡¡feudal¡¡administrators¡¡had¡¡become¡¡the¡¡well¡­mannered

but¡¡quite¡¡useless¡¡loafers¡¡of¡¡the¡¡court¡¡of¡¡Versailles¡£



Louis¡¡was¡¡ten¡¡years¡¡old¡¡when¡¡the¡¡peace¡¡of¡¡Westphalia¡¡was

concluded¡¡and¡¡the¡¡House¡¡of¡¡Habsburg£»¡¡as¡¡a¡¡result¡¡of¡¡the

Thirty¡¡Years¡¡War£»¡¡lost¡¡its¡¡predominant¡¡position¡¡in¡¡Europe¡£

It¡¡was¡¡inevitable¡¡that¡¡a¡¡man¡¡with¡¡his¡¡ambition¡¡should¡¡use¡¡so

favourable¡¡a¡¡moment¡¡to¡¡gain¡¡for¡¡his¡¡own¡¡dynasty¡¡the¡¡honours

which¡¡had¡¡formerly¡¡been¡¡held¡¡by¡¡the¡¡Habsburgs¡£¡¡In¡¡the¡¡year

1660¡¡Louis¡¡had¡¡married¡¡Maria¡¡Theresa£»¡¡daughter¡¡of¡¡the¡¡King

of¡¡Spain¡£¡¡Soon¡¡afterward£»¡¡his¡¡father¡­in¡­law£»¡¡Philip¡¡IV£»¡¡one

of¡¡the¡¡half¡­witted¡¡Spanish¡¡Habsburgs£»¡¡died¡£¡¡At¡¡once¡¡Louis

claimed¡¡the¡¡Spanish¡¡Netherlands¡¡£¨Belgium£©¡¡as¡¡part¡¡of¡¡his

wife's¡¡dowry¡£¡¡Such¡¡an¡¡acquisition¡¡would¡¡have¡¡been¡¡disastrous

to¡¡the¡¡peace¡¡of¡¡Europe£»¡¡and¡¡would¡¡have¡¡threatened¡¡the¡¡safety

of¡¡the¡¡Protestant¡¡states¡£¡¡Under¡¡the¡¡leadership¡¡of¡¡Jan¡¡de¡¡Witt£»

Raadpensionaris¡¡or¡¡Foreign¡¡Minister¡¡of¡¡the¡¡United¡¡Seven

Netherlands£»¡¡the¡¡first¡¡great¡¡international¡¡alliance£»¡¡the¡¡Triple

Alliance¡¡of¡¡Sweden£»¡¡England¡¡and¡¡Holland£»¡¡of¡¡the¡¡year¡¡1661£»

was¡¡concluded¡£¡¡It¡¡did¡¡not¡¡last¡¡long¡£¡¡With¡¡money¡¡and¡¡fair

promises¡¡Louis¡¡bought¡¡up¡¡both¡¡King¡¡Charles¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Swedish

Estates¡£¡¡Holland¡¡was¡¡betrayed¡¡by¡¡her¡¡allies¡¡and¡¡was¡¡left¡¡to

her¡¡own¡¡fate¡£¡¡In¡¡the¡¡year¡¡1672¡¡the¡¡French¡¡invaded¡¡the¡¡low

countries¡£¡¡They¡¡marched¡¡to¡¡the¡¡heart¡¡of¡¡the¡¡country¡£¡¡For¡¡a

second¡¡time¡¡the¡¡dikes¡¡were¡¡opened¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Royal¡¡Sun¡¡of

France¡¡set¡¡amidst¡¡the¡¡mud¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Dutch¡¡marshes¡£¡¡The¡¡peace

of¡¡Nimwegen¡¡which¡¡was¡¡concluded¡¡in¡¡1678¡¡settled¡¡nothing¡¡but

merely¡¡anticipated¡¡another¡¡war¡£



A¡¡second¡¡war¡¡of¡¡aggression¡¡from¡¡1689¡¡to¡¡1697£»¡¡ending¡¡with

the¡¡Peace¡¡of¡¡Ryswick£»¡¡also¡¡failed¡¡to¡¡give¡¡Louis¡¡that¡¡position¡¡in

the¡¡affairs¡¡of¡¡Europe¡¡to¡¡which¡¡he¡¡aspired¡£¡¡His¡¡old¡¡enemy£»

Jan¡¡de¡¡Witt£»¡¡had¡¡been¡¡murdered¡¡by¡¡the¡¡Dutch¡¡rabble£»¡¡but¡¡his

successor£»¡¡William¡¡III¡¡£¨whom¡¡you¡¡met¡¡in¡¡the¡¡last¡¡chapter£©£»

had¡¡checkmated¡¡all¡¡efforts¡¡of¡¡Louis¡¡to¡¡make¡¡France¡¡the¡¡ruler¡¡of

Europe¡£



The¡¡great¡¡war¡¡for¡¡the¡¡Spanish¡¡succession£»¡¡begun¡¡in¡¡the

year¡¡1701£»¡¡immediately¡¡after¡¡the¡¡death¡¡of¡¡Charles¡¡II£»¡¡the¡¡last

of¡¡the¡¡Spanish¡¡Habsburgs£»¡¡and¡¡ended¡¡in¡¡1713¡¡by¡¡the¡¡Peace

of¡¡Utrecht£»¡¡remained¡¡equally¡¡undecided£»¡¡but¡¡it¡¡had¡¡ruined¡¡the

treasury¡¡of¡¡Louis¡£¡¡On¡¡land¡¡the¡¡French¡¡king¡¡had¡¡been¡¡victorious£»

but¡¡the¡¡navies¡¡of¡¡England¡¡and¡¡Holland¡¡had¡¡spoiled¡¡all

hope¡¡for¡¡an¡¡ultimate¡¡French¡¡victory£»¡¡besides¡¡the¡¡long¡¡struggle

had¡¡given¡¡birth¡¡to¡¡a¡¡new¡¡and¡¡fundamental¡¡principle¡¡of¡¡international

politics£»¡¡which¡¡thereafter¡¡made¡¡it¡¡impossible¡¡for¡¡one

single¡¡nation¡¡to¡¡rule¡¡the¡¡whole¡¡of¡¡Europe¡¡or¡¡the¡¡whole¡¡of¡¡the

world¡¡for¡¡any¡¡length¡¡of¡¡time¡£



That¡¡was¡¡the¡¡so¡­called¡¡¡®¡®balance¡¡of¡¡power¡£''¡¡It¡¡was¡¡not¡¡a

written¡¡law¡¡but¡¡for¡¡three¡¡centuries¡¡it¡¡has¡¡been¡¡obeyed¡¡as¡¡closely

as¡¡are¡¡the¡¡laws¡¡of¡¡nature¡£¡¡The¡¡people¡¡who¡¡originated¡¡the¡¡idea

maintained¡¡that¡¡Europe£»¡¡in¡¡its¡¡nationalistic¡¡stage¡¡of¡¡development£»

could¡¡o

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