Ì«×ÓүС˵Íø > Ó¢Óïµç×ÓÊé > the story of mankind >

µÚ50½Ú

the story of mankind-µÚ50½Ú

С˵£º the story of mankind ×ÖÊý£º ÿҳ4000×Ö

°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡û »ò ¡ú ¿É¿ìËÙÉÏÏ·­Ò³£¬°´¼üÅÌÉ쵀 Enter ¼ü¿É»Øµ½±¾ÊéĿ¼ҳ£¬°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡ü ¿É»Øµ½±¾Ò³¶¥²¿£¡
¡ª¡ª¡ª¡ªÎ´ÔĶÁÍꣿ¼ÓÈëÊéÇ©ÒѱãÏ´μÌÐøÔĶÁ£¡




of¡¡England£»¡¡he¡¡was¡¡officially¡¡made¡¡Lord¡¡Protector¡¡in¡¡the¡¡year

1653¡£¡¡He¡¡ruled¡¡five¡¡years¡£¡¡He¡¡used¡¡this¡¡period¡¡to¡¡continue

the¡¡policies¡¡of¡¡Elizabeth¡£¡¡Spain¡¡once¡¡more¡¡became¡¡the¡¡arch

enemy¡¡of¡¡England¡¡and¡¡war¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡Spaniard¡¡was¡¡made¡¡a¡¡national

and¡¡sacred¡¡issue¡£



The¡¡commerce¡¡of¡¡England¡¡and¡¡the¡¡interests¡¡of¡¡the¡¡traders

were¡¡placed¡¡before¡¡everything¡¡else£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Protestant¡¡creed¡¡of

the¡¡strictest¡¡nature¡¡was¡¡rigourously¡¡maintained¡£¡¡In¡¡maintaining

England's¡¡position¡¡abroad£»¡¡Cromwell¡¡was¡¡successful¡£¡¡As¡¡a

social¡¡reformer£»¡¡however£»¡¡he¡¡failed¡¡very¡¡badly¡£¡¡The¡¡world¡¡is

made¡¡up¡¡of¡¡a¡¡number¡¡of¡¡people¡¡and¡¡they¡¡rarely¡¡think¡¡alike¡£

In¡¡the¡¡long¡¡run£»¡¡this¡¡seems¡¡a¡¡very¡¡wise¡¡provision¡£¡¡A¡¡government

of¡¡and¡¡by¡¡and¡¡for¡¡one¡¡single¡¡part¡¡of¡¡the¡¡entire¡¡community

cannot¡¡possibly¡¡survive¡£¡¡The¡¡Puritans¡¡had¡¡been¡¡a¡¡great

force¡¡for¡¡good¡¡when¡¡they¡¡tried¡¡to¡¡correct¡¡the¡¡abuse¡¡of¡¡the

royal¡¡power¡£¡¡As¡¡the¡¡absolute¡¡Rulers¡¡of¡¡England¡¡they¡¡became

intolerable¡£



When¡¡Cromwell¡¡died¡¡in¡¡1658£»¡¡it¡¡was¡¡an¡¡easy¡¡matter¡¡for¡¡the

Stuarts¡¡to¡¡return¡¡to¡¡their¡¡old¡¡kingdom¡£¡¡Indeed£»¡¡they¡¡were

welcomed¡¡as¡¡¡®¡®deliverers''¡¡by¡¡the¡¡people¡¡who¡¡had¡¡found¡¡the

yoke¡¡of¡¡the¡¡meek¡¡Puritans¡¡quite¡¡as¡¡hard¡¡to¡¡bear¡¡as¡¡that¡¡of¡¡autocratic

King¡¡Charles¡£¡¡Provided¡¡the¡¡Stuarts¡¡were¡¡willing¡¡to¡¡forget

about¡¡the¡¡Divine¡¡Right¡¡of¡¡their¡¡late¡¡and¡¡lamented¡¡father

and¡¡were¡¡willing¡¡to¡¡recognise¡¡the¡¡superiority¡¡of¡¡Parliament£»¡¡the

people¡¡promised¡¡that¡¡they¡¡would¡¡be¡¡loyal¡¡and¡¡faithful¡¡subjects¡£



Two¡¡generations¡¡tried¡¡to¡¡make¡¡a¡¡success¡¡of¡¡this¡¡new¡¡arrangement¡£

But¡¡the¡¡Stuarts¡¡apparently¡¡had¡¡not¡¡learned¡¡their

lesson¡¡and¡¡were¡¡unable¡¡to¡¡drop¡¡their¡¡bad¡¡habits¡£¡¡Charles¡¡II£»

who¡¡came¡¡back¡¡in¡¡the¡¡year¡¡1660£»¡¡was¡¡an¡¡amiable¡¡but¡¡worthless

person¡£¡¡His¡¡indolence¡¡and¡¡his¡¡constitutional¡¡insistence¡¡upon

following¡¡the¡¡easiest¡¡course£»¡¡together¡¡with¡¡his¡¡conspicuous¡¡success

as¡¡a¡¡liar£»¡¡prevented¡¡an¡¡open¡¡outbreak¡¡between¡¡himself¡¡and

his¡¡people¡£¡¡By¡¡the¡¡act¡¡of¡¡Uniformity¡¡in¡¡1662¡¡he¡¡broke¡¡the

power¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Puritan¡¡clergy¡¡by¡¡banishing¡¡all¡¡dissenting¡¡clergymen

from¡¡their¡¡parishes¡£¡¡By¡¡the¡¡so¡­called¡¡Conventicle¡¡Act¡¡of

1664¡¡he¡¡tried¡¡to¡¡prevent¡¡the¡¡Dissenters¡¡from¡¡attending¡¡religious

meetings¡¡by¡¡a¡¡threat¡¡of¡¡deportation¡¡to¡¡the¡¡West¡¡Indies¡£¡¡This

looked¡¡too¡¡much¡¡like¡¡the¡¡good¡¡old¡¡days¡¡of¡¡Divine¡¡Right¡£¡¡People

began¡¡to¡¡show¡¡the¡¡old¡¡and¡¡well¡­known¡¡signs¡¡of¡¡impatience£»

and¡¡Parliament¡¡suddenly¡¡experienced¡¡difficulty¡¡in¡¡providing

the¡¡King¡¡with¡¡funds¡£



Since¡¡he¡¡could¡¡not¡¡get¡¡money¡¡from¡¡an¡¡unwilling¡¡Parliament£»

Charles¡¡borrowed¡¡it¡¡secretly¡¡from¡¡his¡¡neighbour¡¡and¡¡cousin

King¡¡Louis¡¡of¡¡France¡£¡¡He¡¡betrayed¡¡his¡¡Protestant¡¡allies¡¡in

return¡¡for¡¡200£»000¡¡pounds¡¡per¡¡year£»¡¡and¡¡laughed¡¡at¡¡the¡¡poor

simpletons¡¡of¡¡Parliament¡£



Economic¡¡independence¡¡suddenly¡¡gave¡¡the¡¡King¡¡great¡¡faith

in¡¡his¡¡own¡¡strength¡£¡¡He¡¡had¡¡spent¡¡many¡¡years¡¡of¡¡exile¡¡among

his¡¡Catholic¡¡relations¡¡and¡¡he¡¡had¡¡a¡¡secret¡¡liking¡¡for¡¡their

religion¡£¡¡Perhaps¡¡he¡¡could¡¡bring¡¡England¡¡back¡¡to¡¡Rome£¡¡¡He

passed¡¡a¡¡Declaration¡¡of¡¡Indulgence¡¡which¡¡suspended¡¡the¡¡old

laws¡¡against¡¡the¡¡Catholics¡¡and¡¡Dissenters¡£¡¡This¡¡happened¡¡just

when¡¡Charles'¡¡younger¡¡brother¡¡James¡¡was¡¡said¡¡to¡¡have¡¡become

a¡¡Catholic¡£¡¡All¡¡this¡¡looked¡¡suspicious¡¡to¡¡the¡¡man¡¡in¡¡the¡¡street

People¡¡began¡¡to¡¡fear¡¡some¡¡terrible¡¡Popish¡¡plot¡£¡¡A¡¡new¡¡spirit

of¡¡unrest¡¡entered¡¡the¡¡land¡£¡¡Most¡¡of¡¡the¡¡people¡¡wanted¡¡to¡¡prevent

another¡¡outbreak¡¡of¡¡civil¡¡war¡£¡¡To¡¡them¡¡Royal¡¡Oppression

and¡¡a¡¡Catholic¡¡Kingyea£»¡¡even¡¡Divine¡¡Right£»were

preferable¡¡to¡¡a¡¡new¡¡struggle¡¡between¡¡members¡¡of¡¡the¡¡same

race¡£¡¡Others¡¡however¡¡were¡¡less¡¡lenient¡£¡¡They¡¡were¡¡the¡¡much¡­

feared¡¡Dissenters£»¡¡who¡¡invariably¡¡had¡¡the¡¡courage¡¡of¡¡their

convictions¡£¡¡They¡¡were¡¡led¡¡by¡¡several¡¡great¡¡noblemen¡¡who¡¡did

not¡¡want¡¡to¡¡see¡¡a¡¡return¡¡of¡¡the¡¡old¡¡days¡¡of¡¡absolute¡¡royal

power¡£



For¡¡almost¡¡ten¡¡years£»¡¡these¡¡two¡¡great¡¡parties£»¡¡the¡¡Whigs

£¨the¡¡middle¡¡class¡¡element£»¡¡called¡¡by¡¡this¡¡derisive¡¡name¡¡be¡­

cause¡¡in¡¡the¡¡year¡¡1640¡¡a¡¡lot¡¡of¡¡Scottish¡¡Whiggamores¡¡or¡¡horse¡­

drovers¡¡headed¡¡by¡¡the¡¡Presbyterian¡¡clergy£»¡¡had¡¡marched¡¡to

Edinburgh¡¡to¡¡oppose¡¡the¡¡King£©¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Tories¡¡£¨an¡¡epithet

originally¡¡used¡¡against¡¡the¡¡Royalist¡¡Irish¡¡adherents¡¡but¡¡now

applied¡¡to¡¡the¡¡supporters¡¡of¡¡the¡¡King£©¡¡opposed¡¡each¡¡other£»¡¡but

neither¡¡wished¡¡to¡¡bring¡¡about¡¡a¡¡crisis¡£¡¡They¡¡allowed¡¡Charles¡¡to

die¡¡peacefully¡¡in¡¡his¡¡bed¡¡and¡¡permitted¡¡the¡¡Catholic¡¡James¡¡II

to¡¡succeed¡¡his¡¡brother¡¡in¡¡1685¡£¡¡But¡¡when¡¡James£»¡¡after¡¡threatening

the¡¡country¡¡with¡¡the¡¡terrible¡¡foreign¡¡invention¡¡of¡¡a¡¡¡®¡®standing

army''¡¡£¨which¡¡was¡¡to¡¡be¡¡commanded¡¡by¡¡Catholic¡¡Frenchmen£©£»

issued¡¡a¡¡second¡¡Declaration¡¡of¡¡Indulgence¡¡in¡¡1688£»¡¡and

ordered¡¡it¡¡to¡¡be¡¡read¡¡in¡¡all¡¡Anglican¡¡churches£»¡¡he¡¡went¡¡just¡¡a

trifle¡¡beyond¡¡that¡¡line¡¡of¡¡sensible¡¡demarcation¡¡which¡¡can¡¡only¡¡be

transgressed¡¡by¡¡the¡¡most¡¡popular¡¡of¡¡rulers¡¡under¡¡very

exceptional¡¡circumstances¡£¡¡Seven¡¡bishops¡¡refused¡¡to¡¡comply

with¡¡the¡¡Royal¡¡Command¡£¡¡They¡¡were¡¡accused¡¡of¡¡¡®¡®seditious

libel¡£''¡¡They¡¡were¡¡brought¡¡before¡¡a¡¡court¡£¡¡The¡¡jury¡¡which

pronounced¡¡the¡¡verdict¡¡of¡¡¡®¡®not¡¡guilty''¡¡reaped¡¡a¡¡rich¡¡harvest

of¡¡popular¡¡approval¡£



At¡¡this¡¡unfortunate¡¡moment£»¡¡James¡¡£¨who¡¡in¡¡a¡¡second¡¡marriage

had¡¡taken¡¡to¡¡wife¡¡Maria¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Catholic¡¡house¡¡of¡¡Modena¡­

Este£©¡¡became¡¡the¡¡father¡¡of¡¡a¡¡son¡£¡¡This¡¡meant¡¡that¡¡the¡¡throne

was¡¡to¡¡go¡¡to¡¡a¡¡Catholic¡¡boy¡¡rather¡¡than¡¡to¡¡his¡¡older¡¡sisters£»

Mary¡¡and¡¡Anne£»¡¡who¡¡were¡¡Protestants¡£¡¡The¡¡man¡¡in¡¡the¡¡street

again¡¡grew¡¡suspicious¡£¡¡Maria¡¡of¡¡Modena¡¡was¡¡too¡¡old¡¡to¡¡have

children£¡¡¡It¡¡was¡¡all¡¡part¡¡of¡¡a¡¡plot£¡¡¡A¡¡strange¡¡baby¡¡had¡¡been

brought¡¡into¡¡the¡¡palace¡¡by¡¡some¡¡Jesuit¡¡priest¡¡that¡¡England

might¡¡have¡¡a¡¡Catholic¡¡monarch¡£¡¡And¡¡so¡¡on¡£¡¡It¡¡looked¡¡as¡¡if

another¡¡civil¡¡war¡¡would¡¡break¡¡out¡£¡¡Then¡¡seven¡¡well¡­known

men£»¡¡both¡¡Whigs¡¡and¡¡Tories£»¡¡wrote¡¡a¡¡letter¡¡asking¡¡the¡¡husband

of¡¡James's¡¡oldest¡¡daughter¡¡Mary£»¡¡William¡¡III¡¡the¡¡Stadtholder

or¡¡head¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Dutch¡¡Republic£»¡¡to¡¡come¡¡to¡¡England¡¡and

deliver¡¡the¡¡country¡¡from¡¡its¡¡lawful¡¡but¡¡entirely¡¡undesirable

sovereign¡£



On¡¡the¡¡fifth¡¡of¡¡November¡¡of¡¡the¡¡year¡¡1688£»¡¡William¡¡landed

at¡¡Torbay¡£¡¡As¡¡he¡¡did¡¡not¡¡wish¡¡to¡¡make¡¡a¡¡martyr¡¡out¡¡of¡¡his

father¡­in¡­law£»¡¡he¡¡helped¡¡him¡¡to¡¡escape¡¡safely¡¡to¡¡France¡£¡¡On

the¡¡22nd¡¡of¡¡January¡¡of¡¡1689¡¡he¡¡summoned¡¡Parliament¡£¡¡On

the¡¡13th¡¡of¡¡February¡¡of¡¡the¡¡same¡¡year¡¡he¡¡and¡¡his¡¡wife¡¡Mary

were¡¡proclaimed¡¡joint¡¡sovereigns¡¡of¡¡England¡¡and¡¡the¡¡country

was¡¡saved¡¡for¡¡the¡¡Protestant¡¡cause¡£



Parliament£»¡¡having¡¡undertaken¡¡to¡¡be¡¡something¡¡more¡¡than

a¡¡mere¡¡advisory¡¡body¡¡to¡¡the¡¡King£»¡¡made¡¡the¡¡best¡¡of¡¡its

opportunities¡£¡¡The¡¡old¡¡Petition¡¡of¡¡Rights¡¡of¡¡the¡¡year¡¡1628¡¡was

fished¡¡out¡¡of¡¡a¡¡forgotten¡¡nook¡¡of¡¡the¡¡archives¡£¡¡A¡¡second¡¡and

more¡¡drastic¡¡Bill¡¡of¡¡Rights¡¡demanded¡¡that¡¡the¡¡sovereign¡¡of

England¡¡should¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡the¡¡Anglican¡¡church¡£¡¡Furthermore

it¡¡stated¡¡that¡¡the¡¡king¡¡had¡¡no¡¡right¡¡to¡¡suspend¡¡the¡¡laws¡¡or

permit¡¡certain¡¡privileged¡¡citizens¡¡to¡¡disobey¡¡certain¡¡laws¡£¡¡It

stipulated¡¡that¡¡¡®¡®without¡¡consent¡¡of¡¡Parliament¡¡no¡¡taxes¡¡could

be¡¡levied¡¡and¡¡no¡¡army¡¡could¡¡be¡¡maintained¡£''¡¡Thus¡¡in¡¡the¡¡year

1689¡¡did¡¡England¡¡acquire¡¡an¡¡amount¡¡of¡¡liberty¡¡unknown¡¡in

any¡¡other¡¡country¡¡of¡¡Europe¡£



But¡¡it¡¡is¡¡not¡¡only¡¡on¡¡account¡¡of¡¡this¡¡great¡¡liberal¡¡measure

that¡¡the¡¡rule¡¡of¡¡William¡¡in¡¡England¡¡is¡¡still¡¡remembered¡£¡¡During

his¡¡lifetime£»¡¡government¡¡by¡¡a¡¡¡®¡®responsible''¡¡ministry¡¡first

developed¡£¡¡No¡¡king¡¡of¡¡course¡¡can¡¡rule¡¡alone¡£¡¡He¡¡needs¡¡a¡¡few

trusted¡¡advisors¡£¡¡The¡¡Tudors¡¡had¡¡their¡¡Great¡¡Council¡¡which

was¡¡composed¡¡of¡¡Nobles¡¡and¡¡Clergy¡£¡¡This¡¡body¡¡grew¡¡too

large¡£¡¡It¡¡was¡¡restricted¡¡to¡¡the¡¡small¡¡¡®¡®Privy¡¡Council¡£''¡¡In¡¡the

course¡¡of¡¡time¡¡it¡¡became¡¡the¡¡custom¡¡of¡¡these¡¡councillors¡¡to¡¡meet

the¡¡king¡¡in¡¡a¡¡cabinet¡¡in¡¡the¡¡palace¡£¡¡Hence¡¡they¡¡were¡¡called

the¡¡¡®¡®Cabinet¡¡Council¡£''¡¡After¡¡a¡¡short¡¡while¡¡they¡¡were¡¡known

as¡¡the¡¡¡®¡®Cabinet¡£''



William£»¡¡like¡¡most¡¡English¡¡sovereigns¡¡before¡¡him£»¡¡had

chosen¡¡his¡¡advisors¡¡from¡¡among¡¡all¡¡parties¡£¡¡But¡¡with¡¡the¡¡increased

strength¡¡of¡¡Parliament£»¡¡he¡¡had¡¡found¡¡it¡¡impossible¡¡to

direct¡¡the¡¡politics¡¡of¡¡the¡¡country¡¡with¡¡the¡¡help¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Tories

while¡¡the¡¡Whigs¡¡had¡¡a¡¡majority¡¡in¡¡the¡¡house¡¡of¡¡Commons¡£

Therefore¡¡the¡¡Tories¡¡had¡¡been¡¡dismissed¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Cabinet¡¡Council

had¡¡been¡¡composed¡¡entirely¡¡of¡¡Whigs¡£¡¡A¡¡few¡¡years¡¡later

when¡¡the¡¡Whigs¡¡lost¡¡their¡¡power¡¡in¡¡the¡¡House¡¡of¡¡Commons£»¡¡the

king£»¡¡for¡¡the¡¡sake¡¡of¡¡convenience£»¡¡was¡¡obliged¡¡to¡¡look¡¡for¡¡his

support¡¡among¡¡the¡¡leading¡¡Tories¡£¡¡Until¡¡his¡¡death¡¡in¡¡1702£»

William¡¡was¡¡too¡¡busy¡¡fighting¡¡Louis¡¡of¡¡France¡¡to¡¡bother¡¡much

about¡¡the¡¡government¡¡of¡¡England¡£¡¡Practically¡¡all¡¡important

affairs¡¡had¡¡been¡¡left¡¡to¡¡his¡¡Cabinet¡¡Council¡£¡¡When¡¡William's

sister¡­in¡­law£»¡¡Anne£»¡¡succeeded¡¡him¡¡in¡¡1702¡¡this¡¡condition¡¡of

affairs¡¡continued¡£¡¡When¡¡she¡¡died¡¡in¡¡1714¡¡£¨and¡¡unfortunately

not¡¡a¡¡single¡¡one¡¡of¡¡her¡¡seventeen¡¡children¡¡survived¡¡her£©¡¡the

throne¡¡went¡¡to¡¡George¡¡I¡¡of¡¡the¡¡House¡¡of¡¡Hanover£»¡¡the¡¡son¡¡of

Sophie£»¡¡grand¡­daughter¡¡of¡¡James¡¡I¡£



This¡¡somewhat¡¡rustic¡¡monarch£»¡¡who¡¡never¡¡learned¡¡a¡¡word

of¡¡English£»¡¡was¡¡entirely¡¡lost¡¡in¡¡the¡¡complicated¡¡mazes¡¡of¡¡England's

political¡¡arrangements¡£¡¡He¡¡left¡¡everything¡¡to¡¡his¡¡Cabinet

Council¡¡and¡¡kept¡¡away¡¡from¡¡their¡¡meetings£»¡¡which¡¡bored

him¡¡as¡¡he¡¡did¡¡not¡¡understand¡¡a¡¡single¡¡sentence¡£¡¡In¡¡this¡¡way

the¡¡Cabinet¡¡got¡¡into¡¡the¡¡habit¡¡of¡¡ruling¡¡England¡¡and¡¡Scotla

·µ»ØĿ¼ ÉÏÒ»Ò³ ÏÂÒ»Ò³ »Øµ½¶¥²¿ ÔÞ£¨0£© ²È£¨0£©

Äã¿ÉÄÜϲ»¶µÄ