the story of mankind-第50节

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of　England；　he　was　officially　made　Lord　Protector　in　the　year

1653。　He　ruled　five　years。　He　used　this　period　to　continue

the　policies　of　Elizabeth。　Spain　once　more　became　the　arch

enemy　of　England　and　war　upon　the　Spaniard　was　made　a　national

and　sacred　issue。



The　commerce　of　England　and　the　interests　of　the　traders

were　placed　before　everything　else；　and　the　Protestant　creed　of

the　strictest　nature　was　rigourously　maintained。　In　maintaining

England's　position　abroad；　Cromwell　was　successful。　As　a

social　reformer；　however；　he　failed　very　badly。　The　world　is

made　up　of　a　number　of　people　and　they　rarely　think　alike。

In　the　long　run；　this　seems　a　very　wise　provision。　A　government

of　and　by　and　for　one　single　part　of　the　entire　community

cannot　possibly　survive。　The　Puritans　had　been　a　great

force　for　good　when　they　tried　to　correct　the　abuse　of　the

royal　power。　As　the　absolute　Rulers　of　England　they　became

intolerable。



When　Cromwell　died　in　1658；　it　was　an　easy　matter　for　the

Stuarts　to　return　to　their　old　kingdom。　Indeed；　they　were

welcomed　as　‘‘deliverers''　by　the　people　who　had　found　the

yoke　of　the　meek　Puritans　quite　as　hard　to　bear　as　that　of　autocratic

King　Charles。　Provided　the　Stuarts　were　willing　to　forget

about　the　Divine　Right　of　their　late　and　lamented　father

and　were　willing　to　recognise　the　superiority　of　Parliament；　the

people　promised　that　they　would　be　loyal　and　faithful　subjects。



Two　generations　tried　to　make　a　success　of　this　new　arrangement。

But　the　Stuarts　apparently　had　not　learned　their

lesson　and　were　unable　to　drop　their　bad　habits。　Charles　II；

who　came　back　in　the　year　1660；　was　an　amiable　but　worthless

person。　His　indolence　and　his　constitutional　insistence　upon

following　the　easiest　course；　together　with　his　conspicuous　success

as　a　liar；　prevented　an　open　outbreak　between　himself　and

his　people。　By　the　act　of　Uniformity　in　1662　he　broke　the

power　of　the　Puritan　clergy　by　banishing　all　dissenting　clergymen

from　their　parishes。　By　the　so…called　Conventicle　Act　of

1664　he　tried　to　prevent　the　Dissenters　from　attending　religious

meetings　by　a　threat　of　deportation　to　the　West　Indies。　This

looked　too　much　like　the　good　old　days　of　Divine　Right。　People

began　to　show　the　old　and　well…known　signs　of　impatience；

and　Parliament　suddenly　experienced　difficulty　in　providing

the　King　with　funds。



Since　he　could　not　get　money　from　an　unwilling　Parliament；

Charles　borrowed　it　secretly　from　his　neighbour　and　cousin

King　Louis　of　France。　He　betrayed　his　Protestant　allies　in

return　for　200；000　pounds　per　year；　and　laughed　at　the　poor

simpletons　of　Parliament。



Economic　independence　suddenly　gave　the　King　great　faith

in　his　own　strength。　He　had　spent　many　years　of　exile　among

his　Catholic　relations　and　he　had　a　secret　liking　for　their

religion。　Perhaps　he　could　bring　England　back　to　Rome！　He

passed　a　Declaration　of　Indulgence　which　suspended　the　old

laws　against　the　Catholics　and　Dissenters。　This　happened　just

when　Charles'　younger　brother　James　was　said　to　have　become

a　Catholic。　All　this　looked　suspicious　to　the　man　in　the　street

People　began　to　fear　some　terrible　Popish　plot。　A　new　spirit

of　unrest　entered　the　land。　Most　of　the　people　wanted　to　prevent

another　outbreak　of　civil　war。　To　them　Royal　Oppression

and　a　Catholic　Kingyea；　even　Divine　Right；were

preferable　to　a　new　struggle　between　members　of　the　same

race。　Others　however　were　less　lenient。　They　were　the　much…

feared　Dissenters；　who　invariably　had　the　courage　of　their

convictions。　They　were　led　by　several　great　noblemen　who　did

not　want　to　see　a　return　of　the　old　days　of　absolute　royal

power。



For　almost　ten　years；　these　two　great　parties；　the　Whigs

（the　middle　class　element；　called　by　this　derisive　name　be…

cause　in　the　year　1640　a　lot　of　Scottish　Whiggamores　or　horse…

drovers　headed　by　the　Presbyterian　clergy；　had　marched　to

Edinburgh　to　oppose　the　King）　and　the　Tories　（an　epithet

originally　used　against　the　Royalist　Irish　adherents　but　now

applied　to　the　supporters　of　the　King）　opposed　each　other；　but

neither　wished　to　bring　about　a　crisis。　They　allowed　Charles　to

die　peacefully　in　his　bed　and　permitted　the　Catholic　James　II

to　succeed　his　brother　in　1685。　But　when　James；　after　threatening

the　country　with　the　terrible　foreign　invention　of　a　‘‘standing

army''　（which　was　to　be　commanded　by　Catholic　Frenchmen）；

issued　a　second　Declaration　of　Indulgence　in　1688；　and

ordered　it　to　be　read　in　all　Anglican　churches；　he　went　just　a

trifle　beyond　that　line　of　sensible　demarcation　which　can　only　be

transgressed　by　the　most　popular　of　rulers　under　very

exceptional　circumstances。　Seven　bishops　refused　to　comply

with　the　Royal　Command。　They　were　accused　of　‘‘seditious

libel。''　They　were　brought　before　a　court。　The　jury　which

pronounced　the　verdict　of　‘‘not　guilty''　reaped　a　rich　harvest

of　popular　approval。



At　this　unfortunate　moment；　James　（who　in　a　second　marriage

had　taken　to　wife　Maria　of　the　Catholic　house　of　Modena…

Este）　became　the　father　of　a　son。　This　meant　that　the　throne

was　to　go　to　a　Catholic　boy　rather　than　to　his　older　sisters；

Mary　and　Anne；　who　were　Protestants。　The　man　in　the　street

again　grew　suspicious。　Maria　of　Modena　was　too　old　to　have

children！　It　was　all　part　of　a　plot！　A　strange　baby　had　been

brought　into　the　palace　by　some　Jesuit　priest　that　England

might　have　a　Catholic　monarch。　And　so　on。　It　looked　as　if

another　civil　war　would　break　out。　Then　seven　well…known

men；　both　Whigs　and　Tories；　wrote　a　letter　asking　the　husband

of　James's　oldest　daughter　Mary；　William　III　the　Stadtholder

or　head　of　the　Dutch　Republic；　to　come　to　England　and

deliver　the　country　from　its　lawful　but　entirely　undesirable

sovereign。



On　the　fifth　of　November　of　the　year　1688；　William　landed

at　Torbay。　As　he　did　not　wish　to　make　a　martyr　out　of　his

father…in…law；　he　helped　him　to　escape　safely　to　France。　On

the　22nd　of　January　of　1689　he　summoned　Parliament。　On

the　13th　of　February　of　the　same　year　he　and　his　wife　Mary

were　proclaimed　joint　sovereigns　of　England　and　the　country

was　saved　for　the　Protestant　cause。



Parliament；　having　undertaken　to　be　something　more　than

a　mere　advisory　body　to　the　King；　made　the　best　of　its

opportunities。　The　old　Petition　of　Rights　of　the　year　1628　was

fished　out　of　a　forgotten　nook　of　the　archives。　A　second　and

more　drastic　Bill　of　Rights　demanded　that　the　sovereign　of

England　should　belong　to　the　Anglican　church。　Furthermore

it　stated　that　the　king　had　no　right　to　suspend　the　laws　or

permit　certain　privileged　citizens　to　disobey　certain　laws。　It

stipulated　that　‘‘without　consent　of　Parliament　no　taxes　could

be　levied　and　no　army　could　be　maintained。''　Thus　in　the　year

1689　did　England　acquire　an　amount　of　liberty　unknown　in

any　other　country　of　Europe。



But　it　is　not　only　on　account　of　this　great　liberal　measure

that　the　rule　of　William　in　England　is　still　remembered。　During

his　lifetime；　government　by　a　‘‘responsible''　ministry　first

developed。　No　king　of　course　can　rule　alone。　He　needs　a　few

trusted　advisors。　The　Tudors　had　their　Great　Council　which

was　composed　of　Nobles　and　Clergy。　This　body　grew　too

large。　It　was　restricted　to　the　small　‘‘Privy　Council。''　In　the

course　of　time　it　became　the　custom　of　these　councillors　to　meet

the　king　in　a　cabinet　in　the　palace。　Hence　they　were　called

the　‘‘Cabinet　Council。''　After　a　short　while　they　were　known

as　the　‘‘Cabinet。''



William；　like　most　English　sovereigns　before　him；　had

chosen　his　advisors　from　among　all　parties。　But　with　the　increased

strength　of　Parliament；　he　had　found　it　impossible　to

direct　the　politics　of　the　country　with　the　help　of　the　Tories

while　the　Whigs　had　a　majority　in　the　house　of　Commons。

Therefore　the　Tories　had　been　dismissed　and　the　Cabinet　Council

had　been　composed　entirely　of　Whigs。　A　few　years　later

when　the　Whigs　lost　their　power　in　the　House　of　Commons；　the

king；　for　the　sake　of　convenience；　was　obliged　to　look　for　his

support　among　the　leading　Tories。　Until　his　death　in　1702；

William　was　too　busy　fighting　Louis　of　France　to　bother　much

about　the　government　of　England。　Practically　all　important

affairs　had　been　left　to　his　Cabinet　Council。　When　William's

sister…in…law；　Anne；　succeeded　him　in　1702　this　condition　of

affairs　continued。　When　she　died　in　1714　（and　unfortunately

not　a　single　one　of　her　seventeen　children　survived　her）　the

throne　went　to　George　I　of　the　House　of　Hanover；　the　son　of

Sophie；　grand…daughter　of　James　I。



This　somewhat　rustic　monarch；　who　never　learned　a　word

of　English；　was　entirely　lost　in　the　complicated　mazes　of　England's

political　arrangements。　He　left　everything　to　his　Cabinet

Council　and　kept　away　from　their　meetings；　which　bored

him　as　he　did　not　understand　a　single　sentence。　In　this　way

the　Cabinet　got　into　the　habit　of　ruling　England　and　Scotla