the story of mankind-第33节

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that　they　were　here　to　be　prepared　for　a　greater　and　more

important　life。　Deliberately　they　turned　their　backs　upon　a

world　which　was　filled　with　suffering　and　wickedness　and

injustice。　They　pulled　down　the　blinds　that　the　rays　of　the

sun　might　not　distract　their　attention　from　that　chapter　in　the

Apocalypse　which　told　them　of　that　heavenly　light　which　was

to　illumine　their　happiness　in　all　eternity。　They　tried　to　close

their　eyes　to　most　of　the　joys　of　the　world　in　which　they　lived

that　they　might　enjoy　those　which　awaited　them　in　the　near

future。　They　accepted　life　as　a　necessary　evil　and　welcomed

death　as　the　beginning　of　a　glorious　day。



The　Greeks　and　the　Romans　had　never　bothered　about　the

future　but　had　tried　to　establish　their　Paradise　right　here　upon

this　earth。　They　had　succeeded　in　making　life　extremely　pleasant

for　those　of　their　fellow　men　who　did　not　happen　to　be

slaves。　Then　came　the　other　extreme　of　the　Middle　Ages；

when　man　built　himself　a　Paradise　beyond　the　highest　clouds

and　turned　this　world　into　a　vale　of　tears　for　high　and　low；

for　rich　and　poor；　for　the　intelligent　and　the　dumb。　It　was

time　for　the　pendulum　to　swing　back　in　the　other　direction；　as

I　shall　tell　you　in　my　next　chapter。







MEDIAEVAL　TRADE



HOW　THE　CRUSADES　ONCE　MORE　MADE　THE

MEDITERRANEAN　A　BUSY　CENTRE　OF

TRADE　AND　HOW　THE　CITIES　OF　THE

ITALIAN　PENINSULA　BECAME　THE　GREAT

DISTRIBUTING　CENTRE　FOR　THE　COMMERCE

WITH　ASIA　AND　AFRICA





THERE　were　three　good　reasons　why　the　Italian　cities　should

have　been　the　first　to　regain　a　position　of　great　importance

during　the　late　Middle　Ages。　The　Italian　peninsula　had　been

settled　by　Rome　at　a　very　early　date。　There　had　been　more

roads　and　more　towns　and　more　schools　than　anywhere　else

in　Europe。



The　barbarians　had　burned　as　lustily　in　Italy　as　elsewhere；

but　there　had　been　so　much　to　destroy　that　more　had　been　able

to　survive。　In　the　second　place；　the　Pope　lived　in　Italy　and

as　the　head　of　a　vast　political　machine；　which　owned　land　and

serfs　and　buildings　and　forests　and　rivers　and　conducted　courts

of　law；　he　was　in　constant　receipt　of　a　great　deal　of　money。

The　Papal　authorities　had　to　be　paid　in　gold　and　silver　as　did

the　merchants　and　ship…owners　of　Venice　and　Genoa。　The

cows　and　the　eggs　and　the　horses　and　all　the　other　agricultural

products　of　the　north　and　the　west　must　be　changed　into　actual

cash　before　the　debt　could　be　paid　in　the　distant　city　of　Rome。



This　made　Italy　the　one　country　where　there　was　a　comparative

abundance　of　gold　and　silver。　Finally；　during　the　Crusades；

the　Italian　cities　had　become　the　point　of　embarkation

for　the　Crusaders　and　had　profiteered　to　an　almost　unbelievable

extent。



And　after　the　Crusades　had　come　to　an　end；　these　same

Italian　cities　remained　the　distributing　centres　for　those　Oriental

goods　upon　which　the　people　of　Europe　had　come　to　depend

during　the　time　they　had　spent　in　the　near　east。



Of　these　towns；　few　were　as　famous　as　Venice。　Venice　was

a　republic　built　upon　a　mud　bank。　Thither　people　from　the

mainland　had　fled　during　the　invasions　of　the　barbarians　in　the

fourth　century。　Surrounded　on　all　sides　by　the　sea　they　had

engaged　in　the　business　of　salt…making。　Salt　had　been　very

scarce　during　the　Middle　Ages；　and　the　price　had　been　high。

For　hundreds　of　years　Venice　had　enjoyed　a　monopoly　of

this　indispensable　table　commodity　（I　say　indispensable；　because

people；　like　sheep；　fall　ill　unless　they　get　a　certain　amount

of　salt　in　their　food）。　The　people　had　used　this　monopoly　to

increase　the　power　of　their　city。　At　times　they　had　even　dared

to　defy　the　power　of　the　Popes。　The　town　had　grown　rich　and

had　begun　to　build　ships；　which　engaged　in　trade　with　the

Orient。　During　the　Crusades；　these　ships　were　used　to　carry

passengers　to　the　Holy　Land；　and　when　the　passengers　could

not　pay　for　their　tickets　in　cash；　they　were　obliged　to　help　the

Venetians　who　were　for　ever　increasing　their　colonies　in　the

AEgean　Sea；　in　Asia　Minor　and　in　Egypt。



By　the　end　of　the　fourteenth　century；　the　population　had

grown　to　two　hundred　thousand；　which　made　Venice　the　biggest

city　of　the　Middle　Ages。　The　people　were　without　influence

upon　the　government　which　was　the　private　affair　of　a

small　number　of　rich　merchant　families。　They　elected　a　senate

and　a　Doge　（or　Duke）；　but　the　actual　rulers　of　the　city　were

the　members　of　the　famous　Council　of　Ten；who　maintained

themselves　with　the　help　of　a　highly　organised　system　of　secret

service　men　and　professional　murderers；　who　kept　watch　upon

all　citizens　and　quietly　removed　those　who　might　be　dangerous

to　the　safety　of　their　high…handed　and　unscrupulous　Committee

of　Public　Safety。



The　other　extreme　of　government；　a　democracy　of　very

turbulent　habits；　was　to　be　found　in　Florence。　This　city

controlled　the　main　road　from　northern　Europe　to　Rome　and　used

the　money　which　it　had　derived　from　this　fortunate　economic

position　to　engage　in　manufacturing。　The　Florentines　tried　to

follow　the　example　of　Athens。　Noblemen；　priests　and　members

of　the　guilds　all　took　part　in　the　discussions　of　civic　affairs。

This　led　to　great　civic　upheaval。　People　were　forever　being　divided

into　political　parties　and　these　parties　fought　each　other

with　intense　bitterness　and　exiled　their　enemies　and　confiscated

their　possessions　as　soon　as　they　had　gained　a　victory　in　the

council。　After　several　centuries　of　this　rule　by　organised　mobs；

the　inevitable　happened。　A　powerful　family　made　itself　master

of　the　city　and　governed　the　town　and　the　surrounding　country

after　the　fashion　of　the　old　Greek　‘‘tyrants。''　They　were　called

the　Medici。　The　earliest　Medici　had　been　physicians　（medicus

is　Latin　for　physician；　hence　their　name）；　but　later　they　had

turned　banker。　Their　banks　and　their　pawnshops　were　to　be

found　in　all　the　more　important　centres　of　trade。　Even　today

our　American　pawn…shops　display　the　three　golden　balls

which　were　part　of　the　coat　of　arms　of　the　mighty　house　of

the　Medici；　who　became　rulers　of　Florence　and　married　their

daughters　to　the　kings　of　France　and　were　buried　in　graves

worthy　of　a　Roman　Caesar。



Then　there　was　Genoa；　the　great　rival　of　Venice；　where

the　merchants　specialised　in　trade　with　Tunis　in　Africa　and

the　grain　depots　of　the　Black　Sea。　Then　there　were　more　than

two　hundred　other　cities；　some　large　and　some　small；　each　a　perfect

commercial　unit；　all　of　them　fighting　their　neighbours　and

rivals　with　the　undying　hatred　of　neighbours　who　are　depriving

each　other　of　their　profits。



Once　the　products　of　the　Orient　and　Africa　had　been

brought　to　these　distributing　centres；　they　must　be　prepared

for　the　voyage　to　the　west　and　the　north。



Genoa　carried　her　goods　by　water　to　Marseilles；　from　where

they　were　reshipped　to　the　cities　along　the　Rhone；　which　in

turn　served　as　the　market　places　of　northern　and　western

France。



Venice　used　the　land　route　to　northern　Europe。　This　ancient

road　led　across　the　Brenner　pass；　the　old　gateway　for

the　barbarians　who　had　invaded　Italy。　Past　Innsbruck；　the

merchandise　was　carried　to　Basel。　From　there　it　drifted　down

the　Rhine　to　the　North　Sea　and　England；　or　it　was　taken　to

Augsburg　where　the　Fugger　family　（who　were　both　bankers

and　manufacturers　and　who　prospered　greatly　by　‘‘shaving''

the　coins　with　which　they　paid　their　workmen）；　looked　after

the　further　distribution　to　Nuremberg　and　Leipzig　and　the

cities　of　the　Baltic　and　to　Wisby　（on　the　Island　of　Gotland）

which　looked　after　the　needs　of　the　Northern　Baltic　and　dealt

directly　with　the　Republic　of　Novgorod；　the　old　commercial

centre　of　Russia　which　was　destroyed　by　Ivan　the　Terrible　in

the　middle　of　the　sixteenth　century。



The　little　cities　on　the　coast　of　north…western　Europe　had

an　interesting　story　of　their　own。　The　mediaeval　world　ate　a

great　deal　of　fish。　There　were　many　fast　days　and　then　people

were　not　permitted　to　eat　meat。　For　those　who　lived　away

from　the　coast　and　from　the　rivers；　this　meant　a　diet　of　eggs

or　nothing　at　all。　But　early　in　the　thirteenth　century　a　Dutch

fisherman　had　discovered　a　way　of　curing　herring；　so　that　it

could　be　transported　to　distant　points。　The　herring　fisheries

of　the　North　Sea　then　became　of　great　importance。　But　some

time　during　the　thirteenth　century；　this　useful　little　fish　（for

reasons　of　its　own）　moved　from　the　North　Sea　to　the　Baltic　and

the　cities　of　that　inland　sea　began　to　make　money。　All　the

world　now　sailed　to　the　Baltic　to　catch　herring　and　as　that　fish

could　only　be　caught　during　a　few　months　each　year　（the　rest

of　the　time　it　spends　in　deep　water；　raising　large　families　of

little　herrings）　the　ships　would　have　been　idle　during　the　rest

of　the　time　unless　they　had　found　another　occupation。　They

were　then　used　to　carry　the　wheat　of　northern　and　central　Russia

to　southern　and　western　Europe。　On　the　return　voyage

they　b