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ducats¡¡and¡¡that¡¡he¡¡give¡¡us¡¡in¡¡return¡¡a¡¡written¡¡guarantee¡¡allowing

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such¡¡an¡¡easy¡¡way¡¡of¡¡getting¡¡a¡¡hundred¡¡gold¡¡pieces£©¡¡he¡¡signed

the¡¡death¡­warrant¡¡of¡¡his¡¡own¡¡power¡£¡¡His¡¡clerk¡¡drew¡¡up¡¡the

agreement¡£¡¡His¡¡Lordship¡¡made¡¡his¡¡mark¡¡£¨for¡¡he¡¡could¡¡not

sign¡¡his¡¡name£©¡¡and¡¡departed¡¡for¡¡the¡¡East¡£¡¡Two¡¡years¡¡later

he¡¡came¡¡back£»¡¡dead¡¡broke¡£¡¡The¡¡townspeople¡¡were¡¡fishing¡¡in

the¡¡castle¡¡pond¡£¡¡The¡¡sight¡¡of¡¡this¡¡silent¡¡row¡¡of¡¡anglers¡¡annoyed

his¡¡Lordship¡£¡¡He¡¡told¡¡his¡¡equerry¡¡to¡¡go¡¡and¡¡chase¡¡the¡¡crowd

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visited¡¡the¡¡castle¡£¡¡They¡¡were¡¡very¡¡polite¡£¡¡They¡¡congratulated

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might¡¡perhaps¡¡remember¡¡he¡¡had¡¡given¡¡them¡¡permission

to¡¡do¡¡so¡¡himself£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡tailor¡¡produced¡¡the¡¡Charter¡¡which

had¡¡been¡¡kept¡¡in¡¡the¡¡safe¡¡of¡¡the¡¡jeweller¡¡ever¡¡since¡¡the¡¡master

had¡¡gone¡¡to¡¡the¡¡Holy¡¡Land¡£



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in¡¡dire¡¡need¡¡of¡¡some¡¡money¡£¡¡In¡¡Italy¡¡he¡¡had¡¡signed¡¡his¡¡name

to¡¡certain¡¡documents¡¡which¡¡were¡¡now¡¡in¡¡the¡¡possession¡¡of¡¡Salvestro

dei¡¡Medici£»¡¡the¡¡well¡­known¡¡banker¡£¡¡These¡¡documents

were¡¡¡®¡®promissory¡¡notes''¡¡and¡¡they¡¡were¡¡due¡¡two¡¡months¡¡from

date¡£¡¡Their¡¡total¡¡amount¡¡came¡¡to¡¡three¡¡hundred¡¡and¡¡forty

pounds£»¡¡Flemish¡¡gold¡£¡¡Under¡¡these¡¡circumstances£»¡¡the¡¡noble

knight¡¡could¡¡not¡¡well¡¡show¡¡the¡¡rage¡¡which¡¡filled¡¡his¡¡heart¡¡and

his¡¡proud¡¡soul¡£¡¡Instead£»¡¡he¡¡suggested¡¡another¡¡little¡¡loan¡£¡¡The

merchants¡¡retired¡¡to¡¡discuss¡¡the¡¡matter¡£



After¡¡three¡¡days¡¡they¡¡came¡¡back¡¡and¡¡said¡¡¡®¡®yes¡£''¡¡They

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difficulties£»¡¡but¡¡in¡¡return¡¡for¡¡the¡¡345¡¡golden¡¡pounds¡¡would¡¡he¡¡give

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the¡¡townspeople£»¡¡might¡¡establish¡¡a¡¡council¡¡of¡¡their¡¡own¡¡to¡¡be

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council¡¡to¡¡manage¡¡civic¡¡affairs¡¡without¡¡interference¡¡from¡¡the

side¡¡of¡¡the¡¡castle£¿



His¡¡Lordship¡¡was¡¡confoundedly¡¡angry¡£¡¡But¡¡again£»

he¡¡needed¡¡the¡¡money¡£¡¡He¡¡said¡¡yes£»¡¡and¡¡signed¡¡the¡¡charter¡£

Next¡¡week£»¡¡he¡¡repented¡£¡¡He¡¡called¡¡his¡¡soldiers¡¡and¡¡went¡¡to

the¡¡house¡¡of¡¡the¡¡jeweller¡¡and¡¡asked¡¡for¡¡the¡¡documents¡¡which

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affair¡¡at¡¡the¡¡jeweller's¡¡his¡¡credit¡¡was¡¡not¡¡considered¡¡good¡£

He¡¡was¡¡forced¡¡to¡¡eat¡¡humble¡­pie¡¡and¡¡offer¡¡to¡¡make¡¡certain¡¡reparations¡£

Before¡¡his¡¡Lordship¡¡got¡¡the¡¡first¡¡installment¡¡of¡¡the¡¡stipulated¡¡sum£»

the¡¡townspeople¡¡were¡¡once¡¡more¡¡in¡¡possession¡¡of¡¡all¡¡their¡¡old¡¡charters

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and¡¡a¡¡strong¡¡tower¡¡where¡¡all¡¡the¡¡charters¡¡might¡¡be¡¡kept¡¡protected

against¡¡fire¡¡and¡¡theft£»¡¡which¡¡really¡¡meant¡¡protected¡¡against

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This£»¡¡in¡¡a¡¡very¡¡general¡¡way£»¡¡is¡¡what¡¡happened¡¡during¡¡the

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this¡¡gradual¡¡shifting¡¡of¡¡power¡¡from¡¡the¡¡castle¡¡to¡¡the¡¡city¡£¡¡There

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a¡¡few¡¡castles¡¡went¡¡up¡¡in¡¡smoke¡£¡¡But¡¡such¡¡occurrences¡¡were

not¡¡common¡£¡¡Almost¡¡imperceptibly¡¡the¡¡towns¡¡grew¡¡richer

and¡¡the¡¡feudal¡¡lords¡¡grew¡¡poorer¡£¡¡To¡¡maintain¡¡themselves

they¡¡were¡¡for¡¡ever¡¡forced¡¡to¡¡exchange¡¡charters¡¡of¡¡civic¡¡liberty

in¡¡return¡¡for¡¡ready¡¡cash¡£¡¡The¡¡cities¡¡grew¡£¡¡They¡¡offered¡¡an

asylum¡¡to¡¡run¡­away¡¡serfs¡¡who¡¡gained¡¡their¡¡liberty¡¡after¡¡they

had¡¡lived¡¡a¡¡number¡¡of¡¡years¡¡behind¡¡the¡¡city¡¡walls¡£¡¡They¡¡came

to¡¡be¡¡the¡¡home¡¡of¡¡the¡¡more¡¡energetic¡¡elements¡¡of¡¡the

surrounding¡¡country¡¡districts¡£¡¡They¡¡were¡¡proud¡¡of

their¡¡new¡¡importance¡¡and¡¡expressed¡¡their¡¡power¡¡in¡¡the

churches¡¡and¡¡public¡¡buildings¡¡which¡¡they¡¡erected

around¡¡the¡¡old¡¡market¡¡place£»¡¡where¡¡centuries¡¡before

the¡¡barter¡¡of¡¡eggs¡¡and¡¡sheep¡¡and¡¡honey¡¡and¡¡salt

had¡¡taken¡¡place¡£¡¡They¡¡wanted¡¡their¡¡children¡¡to

have¡¡a¡¡better¡¡chance¡¡in¡¡life¡¡than¡¡they¡¡had¡¡enjoyed

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town¡¡hall¡¡with¡¡scenes¡¡from¡¡the¡¡Holy¡¡Scriptures¡£



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rights¡¡and¡¡prerogatives¡£¡¡But¡¡he¡¡was¡¡helpless¡£¡¡The¡¡townspeople

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which¡¡had¡¡lasted¡¡for¡¡more¡¡than¡¡ten¡¡generations¡£







MEDIAEVAL¡¡SELF¡­GOVERNMENT



HOW¡¡THE¡¡PEOPLE¡¡OF¡¡THE¡¡CITIES¡¡ASSERTED

THEIR¡¡RIGHT¡¡TO¡¡BE¡¡HEARD¡¡IN¡¡THE

ROYAL¡¡COUNCILS¡¡OF¡¡THEIR¡¡COUNTRY





As¡¡long¡¡as¡¡people¡¡were¡¡¡®¡®nomads£»''¡¡wandering¡¡tribes¡¡of¡¡shepherds£»

all¡¡men¡¡had¡¡been¡¡equal¡¡and¡¡had¡¡been¡¡responsible¡¡for¡¡the

welfare¡¡and¡¡safety¡¡of¡¡the¡¡entire¡¡community¡£



But¡¡after¡¡they¡¡had¡¡settled¡¡down¡¡and¡¡some¡¡had¡¡become¡¡rich

and¡¡others¡¡had¡¡grown¡¡poor£»¡¡the¡¡government¡¡was¡¡apt¡¡to¡¡fall¡¡into

the¡¡hands¡¡of¡¡those¡¡who¡¡were¡¡not¡¡obliged¡¡to¡¡work¡¡for¡¡their¡¡living

and¡¡who¡¡could¡¡devote¡¡themselves¡¡to¡¡politics¡£



I¡¡have¡¡told¡¡you¡¡how¡¡this¡¡had¡¡happened¡¡in¡¡Egypt¡¡and¡¡in

Mesopotamia¡¡and¡¡in¡¡Greece¡¡and¡¡in¡¡Rome¡£¡¡It¡¡occurred¡¡among

the¡¡Germanic¡¡population¡¡of¡¡western¡¡Europe¡¡as¡¡soon¡¡as¡¡order

had¡¡been¡¡restored¡£¡¡The¡¡western¡¡European¡¡world¡¡was¡¡ruled

in¡¡the¡¡first¡¡place¡¡by¡¡an¡¡emperor¡¡who¡¡was¡¡elected¡¡by¡¡the¡¡seven

or¡¡eight¡¡most¡¡important¡¡kings¡¡of¡¡the¡¡vast¡¡Roman¡¡Empire¡¡of

the¡¡German¡¡nation¡¡and¡¡who¡¡enjoyed¡¡a¡¡great¡¡deal¡¡of¡¡imaginary

and¡¡very¡¡little¡¡actual¡¡power¡£¡¡It¡¡was¡¡ruled¡¡by¡¡a¡¡number¡¡of

kings¡¡who¡¡sat¡¡upon¡¡shaky¡¡thrones¡£¡¡The¡¡every¡­day¡¡government

was¡¡in¡¡the¡¡hands¡¡of¡¡thousands¡¡of¡¡feudal¡¡princelets¡£¡¡Their

subjects¡¡were¡¡peasants¡¡or¡¡serfs¡£¡¡There¡¡were¡¡few¡¡cities¡£¡¡There

was¡¡hardly¡¡any¡¡middle¡¡class¡£¡¡But¡¡during¡¡the¡¡thirteenth¡¡century

£¨after¡¡an¡¡absence¡¡of¡¡almost¡¡a¡¡thousand¡¡years£©¡¡the¡¡middle

classthe¡¡merchant¡¡classonce¡¡more¡¡appeared¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡his¡­

torical¡¡stage¡¡and¡¡its¡¡rise¡¡in¡¡power£»¡¡as¡¡we¡¡saw¡¡in¡¡the¡¡last¡¡chapter£»

had¡¡meant¡¡a¡¡decrease¡¡in¡¡the¡¡influence¡¡of¡¡the¡¡castle¡¡folk¡£



Thus¡¡far£»¡¡the¡¡king£»¡¡in¡¡ruling¡¡his¡¡domains£»¡¡had¡¡only¡¡paid

attention¡¡to¡¡the¡¡wishes¡¡of¡¡his¡¡noblemen¡¡and¡¡his¡¡bishops¡£¡¡But¡¡the

new¡¡world¡¡of¡¡trade¡¡and¡¡commerce¡¡which¡¡grew¡¡out¡¡of¡¡the

Crusades¡¡forced¡¡him¡¡to¡¡recognise¡¡the¡¡middle¡¡class¡¡or¡¡suffer

from¡¡an¡¡ever¡­increasing¡¡emptiness¡¡of¡¡his¡¡exchequer¡£¡¡Their

majesties¡¡£¨if¡¡they¡¡had¡¡followed¡¡their¡¡hidden¡¡wishes£©¡¡would

have¡¡as¡¡lief¡¡consulted¡¡their¡¡cows¡¡and¡¡their¡¡pigs¡¡as¡¡the¡¡good

burghers¡¡of¡¡their¡¡cities¡£¡¡But¡¡they¡¡could¡¡not¡¡help¡¡themselves¡£

They¡¡swallowed¡¡the¡¡bitter¡¡pill¡¡because¡¡it¡¡was¡¡gilded£»¡¡but¡¡not

without¡¡a¡¡struggle¡£



In¡¡England£»¡¡during¡¡the¡¡absence¡¡of¡¡Richard¡¡the¡¡Lion

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the¡¡greater¡¡part¡¡of¡¡his¡¡crusading¡¡voyage¡¡in¡¡an¡¡Austrian

jail£©¡¡the¡¡government¡¡of¡¡the¡¡country¡¡had¡¡been¡¡placed¡¡in¡¡the

hands¡¡of¡¡John£»¡¡a¡¡brother¡¡of¡¡Richard£»¡¡who¡¡was¡¡his¡¡inferior¡¡in

the¡¡art¡¡of¡¡war£»¡¡but¡¡his¡¡equal¡¡as¡¡a¡¡bad¡¡administrator¡£¡¡John¡¡had

begun¡¡his¡¡career¡¡as¡¡a¡¡regent¡¡by¡¡losing¡¡Normandy¡¡and¡¡the

greater¡¡part¡¡of¡¡the¡¡French¡¡possessions¡£¡¡Next£»¡¡he¡¡had¡¡managed

to¡¡get¡¡into¡¡a¡¡quarrel¡¡with¡¡Pope¡¡Innocent¡¡III£»¡¡the¡¡famous

enemy¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Hohenstaufens¡£¡¡The¡¡Pope¡¡had¡¡excommunicated

John¡¡£¨as¡¡Gregory¡¡VII¡¡had¡¡excommunicated¡¡the¡¡Emperor

Henry¡¡IV¡¡two¡¡centuries¡¡before£©¡£¡¡In¡¡the¡¡year¡¡1213¡¡John¡¡had

been¡¡obliged¡¡to¡¡make¡¡an¡¡ignominious¡¡peace¡¡just¡¡as¡¡Henry¡¡IV

had¡¡been¡¡obliged¡¡to¡¡do¡¡in¡¡the¡¡year¡¡1077¡£



Undismayed¡¡by¡¡his¡¡lack¡¡of¡¡success£»¡¡John¡¡continued¡¡to¡¡abuse

his¡¡royal¡¡power¡¡until¡¡his¡¡disgruntled¡¡vassals¡¡made¡¡a¡¡prisoner

of¡¡their¡¡anointed¡¡ruler¡¡and¡¡forced¡¡him¡¡to¡¡promise¡¡that¡¡he

would¡¡be¡¡good¡¡and¡¡would¡¡never¡¡again¡¡interfere¡¡with¡¡the¡¡ancient

rights¡¡of¡¡his¡¡subjects¡£¡¡All¡¡this¡¡happened¡¡on¡¡a¡¡little¡¡island¡¡in

the¡¡Thames£»¡¡near¡¡the¡¡village¡¡of¡¡Runnymede£»¡¡on¡¡the¡¡15th¡¡of

June¡¡of¡¡the¡¡year¡¡1215¡£¡¡The¡¡document¡¡to¡¡which¡¡John¡¡signed

his¡¡name¡¡was¡¡called¡¡the¡¡Big¡¡Charterthe¡¡Magna¡¡Carta¡£¡¡It

contained¡¡very¡¡little¡¡that¡¡was¡¡new¡£¡¡It¡¡re¡­stated¡¡in¡¡short¡¡and

direct¡¡sentences¡¡the¡¡ancient¡¡duties¡¡of¡¡the¡¡king¡¡and¡¡enumerated

the¡¡privileges¡¡of¡¡his¡¡vassals¡£¡¡It¡¡paid¡¡little¡¡attention¡¡to¡¡the

rights¡¡£¨if¡¡any£©¡¡of¡¡the¡¡vast¡¡majority¡¡of¡¡the¡¡people£»¡¡the¡¡peasants£»

but¡¡it¡¡offered¡¡certain¡¡securities¡¡to¡¡the¡¡rising¡¡class¡¡of¡¡the

merchants¡£¡¡It¡¡was¡¡a¡¡charter¡¡of¡¡great¡¡importance¡¡because¡¡it¡¡defined

the¡¡powers¡¡of¡¡the¡¡king¡¡with¡¡mor

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