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С˵£º the story of mankind ×ÖÊý£º ÿҳ4000×Ö

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of¡¡life¡£¡¡That¡¡will¡¡change¡¡in¡¡due¡¡course¡¡of¡¡time¡¡and¡¡we

shall¡¡then¡¡attack¡¡the¡¡problems¡¡which¡¡are¡¡not¡¡related¡¡to¡¡health

and¡¡to¡¡wages¡¡and¡¡plumbing¡¡and¡¡machinery¡¡in¡¡general¡£



But¡¡please¡¡do¡¡not¡¡be¡¡too¡¡sentimental¡¡about¡¡the¡¡¡®¡®good¡¡old

days¡£''¡¡Many¡¡people¡¡who¡¡only¡¡see¡¡the¡¡beautiful¡¡churches¡¡and

the¡¡great¡¡works¡¡of¡¡art¡¡which¡¡the¡¡Middle¡¡Ages¡¡have¡¡left¡¡behind

grow¡¡quite¡¡eloquent¡¡when¡¡they¡¡compare¡¡our¡¡own¡¡ugly¡¡civilisation

with¡¡its¡¡hurry¡¡and¡¡its¡¡noise¡¡and¡¡the¡¡evil¡¡smells¡¡of¡¡backfiring

motor¡¡trucks¡¡with¡¡the¡¡cities¡¡of¡¡a¡¡thousand¡¡years¡¡ago¡£

But¡¡these¡¡mediaeval¡¡churches¡¡were¡¡invariably¡¡surrounded¡¡by

miserable¡¡hovels¡¡compared¡¡to¡¡which¡¡a¡¡modern¡¡tenement¡¡house

stands¡¡forth¡¡as¡¡a¡¡luxurious¡¡palace¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡true¡¡that¡¡the¡¡noble

Lancelot¡¡and¡¡the¡¡equally¡¡noble¡¡Parsifal£»¡¡the¡¡pure¡¡young¡¡hero

who¡¡went¡¡in¡¡search¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Holy¡¡Grail£»¡¡were¡¡not¡¡bothered¡¡by

the¡¡odor¡¡of¡¡gasoline¡£¡¡But¡¡there¡¡were¡¡other¡¡smells¡¡of¡¡the¡¡barnyard

varietyodors¡¡of¡¡decaying¡¡refuse¡¡which¡¡had¡¡been¡¡thrown

into¡¡the¡¡streetof¡¡pig¡­sties¡¡surrounding¡¡the¡¡Bishop's¡¡palace

of¡¡unwashed¡¡people¡¡who¡¡had¡¡inherited¡¡their¡¡coats¡¡and¡¡hats

from¡¡their¡¡grandfathers¡¡and¡¡who¡¡had¡¡never¡¡learned¡¡the¡¡blessing

of¡¡soap¡£¡¡I¡¡do¡¡not¡¡want¡¡to¡¡paint¡¡too¡¡unpleasant¡¡a¡¡picture¡£

But¡¡when¡¡you¡¡read¡¡in¡¡the¡¡ancient¡¡chronicles¡¡that¡¡the¡¡King¡¡of

France£»¡¡looking¡¡out¡¡of¡¡the¡¡windows¡¡of¡¡his¡¡palace£»¡¡fainted¡¡at

the¡¡stench¡¡caused¡¡by¡¡the¡¡pigs¡¡rooting¡¡in¡¡the¡¡streets¡¡of¡¡Paris£»

when¡¡an¡¡ancient¡¡manuscript¡¡recounts¡¡a¡¡few¡¡details¡¡of¡¡an¡¡epidemic

of¡¡the¡¡plague¡¡or¡¡of¡¡small¡­pox£»¡¡then¡¡you¡¡begin¡¡to¡¡under¡­

stand¡¡that¡¡¡®¡®progress''¡¡is¡¡something¡¡more¡¡than¡¡a¡¡catchword¡¡used

by¡¡modern¡¡advertising¡¡men¡£



No£»¡¡the¡¡progress¡¡of¡¡the¡¡last¡¡six¡¡hundred¡¡years¡¡would¡¡not

have¡¡been¡¡possible¡¡without¡¡the¡¡existence¡¡of¡¡cities¡£¡¡I¡¡shall£»

therefore£»¡¡have¡¡to¡¡make¡¡this¡¡chapter¡¡a¡¡little¡¡longer¡¡than¡¡many

of¡¡the¡¡others¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡too¡¡important¡¡to¡¡be¡¡reduced¡¡to¡¡three¡¡or

four¡¡pages£»¡¡devoted¡¡to¡¡mere¡¡political¡¡events¡£



The¡¡ancient¡¡world¡¡of¡¡Egypt¡¡and¡¡Babylonia¡¡and¡¡Assyria

had¡¡been¡¡a¡¡world¡¡of¡¡cities¡£¡¡Greece¡¡had¡¡been¡¡a¡¡country¡¡of¡¡City¡­

States¡£¡¡The¡¡history¡¡of¡¡Phoenicia¡¡was¡¡the¡¡history¡¡of¡¡two¡¡cities

called¡¡Sidon¡¡and¡¡Tyre¡£¡¡The¡¡Roman¡¡Empire¡¡was¡¡the¡¡¡®¡®hinterland''

of¡¡a¡¡single¡¡town¡£¡¡Writing£»¡¡art£»¡¡science£»¡¡astronomy£»¡¡architecture£»

literature£»¡¡the¡¡theatrethe¡¡list¡¡is¡¡endlesshave¡¡all

been¡¡products¡¡of¡¡the¡¡city¡£



For¡¡almost¡¡four¡¡thousand¡¡years¡¡the¡¡wooden¡¡bee¡­hive¡¡which

we¡¡call¡¡a¡¡town¡¡had¡¡been¡¡the¡¡workshop¡¡of¡¡the¡¡world¡£¡¡Then¡¡came

the¡¡great¡¡migrations¡£¡¡The¡¡Roman¡¡Empire¡¡was¡¡destroyed¡£

The¡¡cities¡¡were¡¡burned¡¡down¡¡and¡¡Europe¡¡once¡¡more¡¡became¡¡a

land¡¡of¡¡pastures¡¡and¡¡little¡¡agricultural¡¡villages¡£¡¡During¡¡the

Dark¡¡Ages¡¡the¡¡fields¡¡of¡¡civilisation¡¡had¡¡lain¡¡fallow¡£



The¡¡Crusades¡¡had¡¡prepared¡¡the¡¡soil¡¡for¡¡a¡¡new¡¡crop¡£¡¡It

was¡¡time¡¡for¡¡the¡¡harvest£»¡¡but¡¡the¡¡fruit¡¡was¡¡plucked¡¡by¡¡the

burghers¡¡of¡¡the¡¡free¡¡cities¡£



I¡¡have¡¡told¡¡you¡¡the¡¡story¡¡of¡¡the¡¡castles¡¡and¡¡the¡¡monasteries£»

with¡¡their¡¡heavy¡¡stone¡¡enclosuresthe¡¡homes¡¡of¡¡the¡¡knights

and¡¡the¡¡monks£»¡¡who¡¡guarded¡¡men's¡¡bodies¡¡and¡¡their¡¡souls¡£

You¡¡have¡¡seen¡¡how¡¡a¡¡few¡¡artisans¡¡£¨butchers¡¡and¡¡bakers¡¡and¡¡an

occasional¡¡candle¡­stick¡¡maker£©¡¡came¡¡to¡¡live¡¡near¡¡the¡¡castle

to¡¡tend¡¡to¡¡the¡¡wants¡¡of¡¡their¡¡masters¡¡and¡¡to¡¡find¡¡protection

in¡¡case¡¡of¡¡danger¡£¡¡Sometimes¡¡the¡¡feudal¡¡lord¡¡allowed¡¡these

people¡¡to¡¡surround¡¡their¡¡houses¡¡with¡¡a¡¡stockade¡£¡¡But¡¡they

were¡¡dependent¡¡for¡¡their¡¡living¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡good¡­will¡¡of¡¡the

mighty¡¡Seigneur¡¡of¡¡the¡¡castle¡£¡¡When¡¡he¡¡went¡¡about¡¡they¡¡knelt

before¡¡him¡¡and¡¡kissed¡¡his¡¡hand¡£



Then¡¡came¡¡the¡¡Crusades¡¡and¡¡many¡¡things¡¡changed¡£¡¡The

migrations¡¡had¡¡driven¡¡people¡¡from¡¡the¡¡north¡­east¡¡to¡¡the¡¡west¡£

The¡¡Crusades¡¡made¡¡millions¡¡of¡¡people¡¡travel¡¡from¡¡the¡¡west¡¡to

the¡¡highly¡¡civilised¡¡regions¡¡of¡¡the¡¡south¡­east¡£¡¡They¡¡discovered

that¡¡the¡¡world¡¡was¡¡not¡¡bounded¡¡by¡¡the¡¡four¡¡walls¡¡of¡¡their¡¡little

settlement¡£¡¡They¡¡came¡¡to¡¡appreciate¡¡better¡¡clothes£»¡¡more

comfortable¡¡houses£»¡¡new¡¡dishes£»¡¡products¡¡of¡¡the¡¡mysterious¡¡Orient¡£

After¡¡their¡¡return¡¡to¡¡their¡¡old¡¡homes£»¡¡they¡¡insisted¡¡that¡¡they

be¡¡supplied¡¡with¡¡those¡¡articles¡£¡¡The¡¡peddler¡¡with¡¡his¡¡pack

upon¡¡his¡¡backthe¡¡only¡¡merchant¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Dark¡¡Agesadded

these¡¡goods¡¡to¡¡his¡¡old¡¡merchandise£»¡¡bought¡¡a¡¡cart£»¡¡hired¡¡a¡¡few

ex¡­crusaders¡¡to¡¡protect¡¡him¡¡against¡¡the¡¡crime¡¡wave¡¡which

followed¡¡this¡¡great¡¡international¡¡war£»¡¡and¡¡went¡¡forth¡¡to¡¡do

business¡¡upon¡¡a¡¡more¡¡modern¡¡and¡¡larger¡¡scale¡£¡¡His¡¡career¡¡was

not¡¡an¡¡easy¡¡one¡£¡¡Every¡¡time¡¡he¡¡entered¡¡the¡¡domains¡¡of¡¡another

Lord¡¡he¡¡had¡¡to¡¡pay¡¡tolls¡¡and¡¡taxes¡£¡¡But¡¡the¡¡business

was¡¡profitable¡¡all¡¡the¡¡same¡¡and¡¡the¡¡peddler¡¡continued¡¡to¡¡make

his¡¡rounds¡£



Soon¡¡certain¡¡energetic¡¡merchants¡¡discovered¡¡that¡¡the¡¡goods

which¡¡they¡¡had¡¡always¡¡imported¡¡from¡¡afar¡¡could¡¡be¡¡made¡¡at

home¡£¡¡They¡¡turned¡¡part¡¡of¡¡their¡¡homes¡¡into¡¡a¡¡workgshop¡££ûsic£ý

They¡¡ceased¡¡to¡¡be¡¡merchants¡¡and¡¡became¡¡manufacturers¡£¡¡They

sold¡¡their¡¡products¡¡not¡¡only¡¡to¡¡the¡¡lord¡¡of¡¡the¡¡castle¡¡and¡¡to¡¡the

abbot¡¡in¡¡his¡¡monastery£»¡¡but¡¡they¡¡exported¡¡them¡¡to¡¡nearby¡¡towns¡£

The¡¡lord¡¡and¡¡the¡¡abbot¡¡paid¡¡them¡¡with¡¡products¡¡of¡¡their¡¡farms£»

eggs¡¡and¡¡wines£»¡¡and¡¡with¡¡honey£»¡¡which¡¡in¡¡those¡¡early¡¡days¡¡was

used¡¡as¡¡sugar¡£¡¡But¡¡the¡¡citizens¡¡of¡¡distant¡¡towns¡¡were¡¡obliged

to¡¡pay¡¡in¡¡cash¡¡and¡¡the¡¡manufacturer¡¡and¡¡the¡¡merchant¡¡began¡¡to

own¡¡little¡¡pieces¡¡of¡¡gold£»¡¡which¡¡entirely¡¡changed¡¡their¡¡position

in¡¡the¡¡society¡¡of¡¡the¡¡early¡¡Middle¡¡Ages¡£



It¡¡is¡¡difficult¡¡for¡¡you¡¡to¡¡imagine¡¡a¡¡world¡¡without¡¡money¡£

In¡¡a¡¡modern¡¡city¡¡one¡¡cannot¡¡possible¡¡live¡¡without¡¡money¡£¡¡All

day¡¡long¡¡you¡¡carry¡¡a¡¡pocket¡¡full¡¡of¡¡small¡¡discs¡¡of¡¡metal¡¡to

¡®¡®pay¡¡your¡¡way¡£''¡¡You¡¡need¡¡a¡¡nickel¡¡for¡¡the¡¡street¡­car£»¡¡a¡¡dollar

for¡¡a¡¡dinner£»¡¡three¡¡cents¡¡for¡¡an¡¡evening¡¡paper¡£¡¡But¡¡many

people¡¡of¡¡the¡¡early¡¡Middle¡¡Ages¡¡never¡¡saw¡¡a¡¡piece¡¡of¡¡coined

money¡¡from¡¡the¡¡time¡¡they¡¡were¡¡born¡¡to¡¡the¡¡day¡¡of¡¡their¡¡death¡£

The¡¡gold¡¡and¡¡silver¡¡of¡¡Greece¡¡and¡¡Rome¡¡lay¡¡buried¡¡beneath

the¡¡ruins¡¡of¡¡their¡¡cities¡£¡¡The¡¡world¡¡of¡¡the¡¡migrations£»¡¡which

had¡¡succeeded¡¡the¡¡Empire£»¡¡was¡¡an¡¡agricultural¡¡world¡£¡¡Every

farmer¡¡raised¡¡enough¡¡grain¡¡and¡¡enough¡¡sheep¡¡and¡¡enough

cows¡¡for¡¡his¡¡own¡¡use¡£



The¡¡mediaeval¡¡knight¡¡was¡¡a¡¡country¡¡squire¡¡and¡¡was¡¡rarely

forced¡¡to¡¡pay¡¡for¡¡materials¡¡in¡¡money¡£¡¡His¡¡estates¡¡produced

everything¡¡that¡¡he¡¡and¡¡his¡¡family¡¡ate¡¡and¡¡drank¡¡and¡¡wore¡¡on

their¡¡backs¡£¡¡The¡¡bricks¡¡for¡¡his¡¡house¡¡were¡¡made¡¡along¡¡the

banks¡¡of¡¡the¡¡nearest¡¡river¡£¡¡Wood¡¡for¡¡the¡¡rafters¡¡of¡¡the¡¡hall

was¡¡cut¡¡from¡¡the¡¡baronial¡¡forest¡£¡¡The¡¡few¡¡articles¡¡that¡¡had¡¡to

come¡¡from¡¡abroad¡¡were¡¡paid¡¡for¡¡in¡¡goodsin¡¡honeyin¡¡eggs

in¡¡fagots¡£



But¡¡the¡¡Crusades¡¡upset¡¡the¡¡routine¡¡of¡¡the¡¡old¡¡agricultural

life¡¡in¡¡a¡¡very¡¡drastic¡¡fashion¡£¡¡Suppose¡¡that¡¡the¡¡Duke¡¡of¡¡Hildesheim

was¡¡going¡¡to¡¡the¡¡Holy¡¡Land¡£¡¡He¡¡must¡¡travel¡¡thousands

of¡¡miles¡¡and¡¡he¡¡must¡¡pay¡¡his¡¡passage¡¡and¡¡his¡¡hotel¡­bills¡£

At¡¡home¡¡he¡¡could¡¡pay¡¡with¡¡products¡¡of¡¡his¡¡farm¡£¡¡But¡¡he

could¡¡not¡¡well¡¡take¡¡a¡¡hundred¡¡dozen¡¡eggs¡¡and¡¡a¡¡cart¡­load¡¡of

hams¡¡with¡¡him¡¡to¡¡satisfy¡¡the¡¡greed¡¡of¡¡the¡¡shipping¡¡agent¡¡of

Venice¡¡or¡¡the¡¡inn¡­keeper¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Brenner¡¡Pass¡£¡¡These¡¡gentlemen

insisted¡¡upon¡¡cash¡£¡¡His¡¡Lordship¡¡therefore¡¡was¡¡obliged

to¡¡take¡¡a¡¡small¡¡quantity¡¡of¡¡gold¡¡with¡¡him¡¡upon¡¡his¡¡voyage¡£

Where¡¡could¡¡he¡¡find¡¡this¡¡gold£¿¡¡He¡¡could¡¡borrow¡¡it¡¡from¡¡the

Lombards£»¡¡the¡¡descendants¡¡of¡¡the¡¡old¡¡Longobards£»¡¡who¡¡had

turned¡¡professional¡¡money¡­lenders£»¡¡who¡¡seated¡¡behind¡¡their

exchange¡­table¡¡£¨commonly¡¡known¡¡as¡¡¡®¡®banco''¡¡or¡¡bank£©¡¡were

glad¡¡to¡¡let¡¡his¡¡Grace¡¡have¡¡a¡¡few¡¡hundred¡¡gold¡¡pieces¡¡in¡¡exchange

for¡¡a¡¡mortgage¡¡upon¡¡his¡¡estates£»¡¡that¡¡they¡¡might¡¡be¡¡repaid

in¡¡case¡¡His¡¡Lordship¡¡should¡¡die¡¡at¡¡the¡¡hands¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Turks¡£



That¡¡was¡¡dangerous¡¡business¡¡for¡¡the¡¡borrower¡£¡¡In¡¡the¡¡end£»

the¡¡Lombards¡¡invariably¡¡owned¡¡the¡¡estates¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Knight

became¡¡a¡¡bankrupt£»¡¡who¡¡hired¡¡himself¡¡out¡¡as¡¡a¡¡fighting¡¡man¡¡to

a¡¡more¡¡powerful¡¡and¡¡more¡¡careful¡¡neighbour¡£



His¡¡Grace¡¡could¡¡also¡¡go¡¡to¡¡that¡¡part¡¡of¡¡the¡¡town¡¡where¡¡the

Jews¡¡were¡¡forced¡¡to¡¡live¡£¡¡There¡¡he¡¡could¡¡borrow¡¡money¡¡at¡¡a

rate¡¡of¡¡fifty¡¡or¡¡sixty¡¡percent¡£¡¡interest¡£¡¡That£»¡¡too£»¡¡was¡¡bad

business¡£¡¡But¡¡was¡¡there¡¡a¡¡way¡¡out£¿¡¡Some¡¡of¡¡the¡¡people¡¡of¡¡the

little¡¡city¡¡which¡¡surrounded¡¡the¡¡castle¡¡were¡¡said¡¡to¡¡have¡¡money¡£

They¡¡had¡¡known¡¡the¡¡young¡¡lord¡¡all¡¡his¡¡life¡£¡¡His¡¡father¡¡and

their¡¡fathers¡¡had¡¡been¡¡good¡¡friends¡£¡¡They¡¡would¡¡not¡¡be

unreasonable¡¡in¡¡their¡¡demands¡£¡¡Very¡¡well¡£¡¡His¡¡Lordship's

clerk£»¡¡a¡¡monk¡¡who¡¡could¡¡write¡¡and¡¡keep¡¡accounts£»¡¡sent¡¡a¡¡note

to¡¡the¡¡best¡¡known¡¡merchants¡¡and¡¡asked¡¡for¡¡a¡¡small¡¡loan¡£¡¡The

townspeople¡¡met¡¡in¡¡the¡¡work¡­room¡¡of¡¡the¡¡jeweller¡¡who¡¡made

chalices¡¡for¡¡the¡¡nearby¡¡churches¡¡and¡¡discussed¡¡this¡¡demand¡£

They¡¡could¡¡not¡¡well¡¡refuse¡£¡¡It¡¡would¡¡serve¡¡no¡¡purpose¡¡to

ask¡¡for¡¡¡®¡®interest¡£''¡¡In¡¡the¡¡first¡¡place£»¡¡it¡¡was¡¡against¡¡the

religious¡¡principles¡¡of¡¡most¡¡people¡¡to¡¡take¡¡interest¡¡and¡¡in¡¡the

second¡¡place£»¡¡it¡¡would¡¡never¡¡be¡¡paid¡¡except¡¡in¡¡agricultural

products¡¡and¡¡of¡¡these¡¡the¡¡people¡¡had¡¡enough¡¡and¡¡to¡¡spare¡£



¡®¡®But£»''¡¡suggested¡¡the¡¡tailor¡¡who¡¡spent¡¡his¡¡days¡¡quietly¡¡sitting

upon¡¡his¡¡table¡¡and¡¡who¡¡was¡¡somewhat¡¡of¡¡a¡¡philosopher£»

¡®¡®suppose¡¡that¡¡we¡¡ask¡¡some¡¡favour¡¡in¡¡return¡¡for¡¡our¡¡money¡£

We¡¡are¡¡all¡¡fond¡¡of¡¡fishing¡£¡¡But¡¡his¡¡Lordship¡¡won't¡¡let¡¡us

fish¡¡in¡¡his¡¡brook¡£¡¡Suppose¡¡that¡¡we¡¡let¡¡him¡¡have¡¡a¡¡hundred

ducats¡¡and¡¡that¡¡he¡¡give¡¡us¡¡in¡¡ret

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