treatise on taxes and contributions-第7节

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！


e　same　number　of　men；　the　same　time；　upon　Silver；　I　say；　that　the　neat　proceed　of　the　Silver　is　the　price　of　the　whole　neat　proceed　of　the　Corn；　and　like　parts　of　the　one；　the　price　of　like　parts　of　the　other。　Although　not　so　many　of　those　who　wrought　in　Silver；　learned　the　Art　of　refining　and　coining；　or　out…lived　the　dangers　and　diseases　of　working　in　the　Mines。　And　this　also　is　the　way　of　pitching　the　true　proportion；　between　the　values　of　Gold　and　Silver；　which　many　times　is　set　but　by　popular　errour；　sometimes　more；　sometimes　less；　diffused　in　the　world；　which　errour　（by　the　way）　is　the　cause　of　our　having　been　pestred　with　too　much　Gold　heretofore；　and　wanting　it　now。　　　　　16。　This；　I　say；　to　be　the　foundation　of　equallizing　and　ballancing　of　values；　yet　in　the　superstructures　and　practices　hereupon；　I　confess　there　is　much　variety；　and　intricacy；　of　which　hereafter。　　　　　17。　The　world　measures　things　by　Gold　and　Silver；　but　principally　the　latter；　for　there　may　not　be　two　measures；　and　consequently　the　better　of　many　must　be　the　onely　of　all；　that　is；　by　fine　silver　of　a　certain　weight：　but　now　if　it　be　hard　to　measure　the　weight　and　fineness　of　silver；　as　by　the　different　reports　of　the　ablest　Saymasters　I　have　known　it　to　be；　and　if　silver　granted　to　be　of　the　same　fineness　and　weight；　rise　and　fall　in　its　price；　and　be　more　worth　at　one　place　than　another；　not　onely　for　being　father　from　the　Mines；　but　for　other　accidents；　and　may　be　more　worth　at　present；　then　a　moneth　or　other　small　time　hence；　and　if　it　differ　in　its　proportion　unto　the　several　things　valued　by　it；　in　several　ages　upon　the　increase　and　diminution　thereof；　we　shall　endeavour　to　examine　some　other　natural　Standards　and　Measures；　without　derogating　from　the　excellent　use　of　these。　　　　　18。　Our　Silver　and　Gold　we　call　by　severall　names；　as　in　England　by　pounds；　shillings；　and　pence；　all　which　may　be　called　and　understood　by　either　of　the　three。　But　that　which　I　would　say　upon　this　matter　is；　that　all　things　ought　to　be　valued　by　two　natural　Denominations；　which　is　Land　and　Labour；　that　is；　we　ought　to　say；　a　Ship　or　garment　is　worth　such　a　measure　of　Land；　with　such　another　measure　of　Labour；　forasmuch　as　both　Ships　and　Garments　were　the　creatures　of　Lands　and　mens　Labours　thereupon；　This　being　true；　we　should　be　glad　to　finde　out　a　natural　Par　between　Land　and　Labour；　so　as　we　might　express　the　value　by　either　of　them　alone　as　well　or　better　then　by　both；　and　reduce　pence　into　pounds。　Wherefore　we　would　be　glad　to　finde　the　natural　values　of　the　Fee　simple　of　Land；　though　but　no　better　then　we　have　done　that　of　the　usus　fructus　above…mentioned；　which　we　attempt　as　followeth。　　　　　19。　Having　found　the　Rent　or　value　of　the　usus　fructus　per　annum；　the　question　is；　how　many　years　purchase　（as　we　usually　say）　is　the　Fee　simple　naturally　worth？　If　we　say　an　infinite　number；　then　an　Acre　of　Land　would　be　equal　in　value　to　a　thousand　Acres　of　the　same　Land；　which　is　absurd；　an　infinity　of　unites　being　equal　to　an　infinity　of　thousands。　Wherefore　we　must　pitch　upon　some　limited　number；　and　that　I　apprehend　to　be　the　number　of　years；　which　I　conceive　one　man　of　fifty　years　old；　another　of　twenty　eight；　and　another　of　seven　years　old；　all　being　alive　together　may　be　thought　to　live；　that　is　to　say；　of　a　Grandfather；　Father；　and　Childe；　few　men　having　reason　to　take　care　of　more　remote　Posterity：　for　if　a　man　be　a　great　Grandfather；　he　himself　is　so　much　the　nearer　his　end；　so　as　there　are　but　three　in　a　continual　line　of　descent　usually　co…existing　together；　and　as　some　are　Grandfathers　at　forty　years；　yet　as　many　are　not　till　above　sixty；　and　sic　de　eteteris。　　　　　20。　Wherefore　I　pitch　the　number　of　years　purchase；　that　any　Land　is　naturally　worth；　to　be　the　ordinary　extent　of　three　such　persons　their　lives。　Now　in　England　we　esteem　three　lives　equal　to　one　and　twenty　years；　and　consequently　the　value　of　Land；　to　be　about　the　same　number　of　years　purchase。　Possibly　if　they　thought　themselves　mistaken　in　the　one；　（as　the　observator　on　the　Bills　of　Mortality　thinks　they　are）　they　would　alter　in　the　other；　unless　the　consideration　of　the　force　of　popular　errour　and　dependance　of　things　already　concatenated；　did　hinder　them。　　　　　21。　This　I　esteem　to　be　the　number　of　years　purchase　where　Titles　are　good；　and　where　there　is　a　moral　certainty　of　enjoying　the　purchase。　But　in　other　Countreys　Lands　are　worth　nearer　thirty　years　purchase；　by　reason　of　the　better　Titles；　more　people；　and　perhaps　truer　opinion　of　the　value　and　duration　of　three　lives。　　　　　22。　And　in　some　places；　Lands　are　worth　yet　more　years　purchase　by　reason　of　some　special　honour；　pleasures；　priviledge　or　jurisdiction　annexed　unto　them。　　　　　23。　On　the　other　hand；　Lands　are　worth　fewer　years　purchase　（as　in　Ireland）　for　the　following　reasons；　which　I　have　here　set　down；　as　unto　the　like　whereof　the　cause　of　the　like　cheapness　in　any　other　place　may　be　imputed。　　　　　First；　In　Ireland；　by　reason　of　the　frequent　Rebellions；　（in　which　if　you　are　conquered；　all　is　lost；　or　if　you　conquer；　yet　you　are　subject　to　swarms　of　thieves　and　robbers）　and　the　envy　which　precedent　missions　of　English　have　against　the　subsequent；　perpetuity　it　self　is　but　forty　years　long；　as　within　which　time　some　ugly　disturbance　hath　hitherto　happened　almost　ever　since　the　first　coming　of　the　English　thither。　　　　　24。　2。　The　Claims　upon　Claims　which　each　hath　to　the　others　Estates；　and　the　facility　of　making　good　any　pretence　whatsoever　by　the　favour　of　some　one　or　other　of　the　many　Governours　and　Ministers　which　within　forty　years　shall　be　in　power　there；　as　also　by　the　frequency　of　false　testimonies；　and　abuse　of　solemn　Oaths。　　　　　25。　3。　The　paucity　of　Inhabitants；　there　being　not　above　the　1/5th　part　so　many　as　the　Territory　would　maintain；　and　of　those　but　a　small　part　do　work　at　all；　and　yet　a　smaller　work　so　much　as　in　other　Countreys。　　　　　26。　4。　That　a　great　part　of　the　Estates；　both　real　and　personal　in　Ireland；　are　owned　by　Absentees；　and　such　as　draw　over　the　profits　raised　out　of　Ireland　refunding　nothing；　so　as　Ireland　exporting　more　then　it　imports　doth　yet　grow　poorer　to　a　paradox。　　　　　27。　5。　The　difficulty　of　executing　justice；　so　many　of　those　in　power　being　themselves　protected　by　Offices；　and　protecting　others。　Moreover；　the　number　of　criminous　and　indebted　persons　being　great；　they　favour　their　like　in　Juries；　Offices；　and　wheresoever　they　can：　Besides；　the　Countrey　is　seldom　enough　to　give　due　encouragement　to　profound　Judges　and　Lawyers；　which　makes　judgements　very　casual；　ignorant　men　being　more　bold　to　be　apt　and　arbitrary；　then　such　as　understand　the　dangers　of　it。　But　all　this　with　a　little　care　in　due　season　might　remedy；　so　as　to　bring　Ireland　in　a　few　years　to　the　same　level　of　values　with　other　places；　but　of　this　also　elsewhere　more　at　large；　for　in　the　next　place　we　shall　come　to　Usury。


Chapter　5

Of　Usury

　　　　What　reason　there　is　for　taking　or　giving　Interest　or　Usury　for　any　thing　which　we　may　certainly　have　again　whensoever　we　call　for　it；　I　see　not；　nor　why　Usury　should　be　scrupled；　where　money　or　other　necessaries　valued　by　it；　is　lent　to　be　paid　at　such　a　time　and　place　as　the　Borrower　chuseth；　so　as　the　Lender　cannot　have　his　money　paid　him　back　where　and　when　himself　pleaseth；　I　also　see　not。　Wherefore　when　a　man　giveth　out　his　money　upon　condition　that　he　may　not　demand　it　back　until　a　certain　time　to　come；　whatsoever　his　own　necessities　shall　be　in　the　mean　time；　he　certainly　may　take　a　compensation　for　this　inconvenience　which　he　admits　against　himself：　And　this　allowance　is　that　we　commonly　call　Usury。　　　　　2。　And　when　one　man　furnisheth　another　with　money　at　some　distant　place；　and　engages　under　great　Penalties　to　pay　him　there；　and　at　a　certain　day　besides；　the　consideration　for　this；　is　that　we　call　Exchange　or　local　Usury。　　　　　As　for　example；　if　a　man　wanting　money　at　Carlisle　in　the　heat　of　the　late　Civil　Wars；　when　the　way　was　full　of　Souldiers　and　Robbers；　and　the　passage　by　Sea　very　long　troublesome；　asnd　dangerous；　and　seldom　passed；　why　might　not　another　take　much　more　than　an　100　l。　at　London　for　warranting　the　like　Summe　to　be　paid　at　Carlisle　on　a　certain　day？　　　　　3。　Now　the　Questions　arising　hence　are；　what　are　the　natural　Standards　of　Usury　and　Exchange？　As　for　Usury；　the　least　that　can　be；　is　the　Rent　of　so　much　Land　as　the　money　lent　will　buy；　where　the　security　is　undoubted；　but　where　the　security　is　casual；then　a　kinde　of　ensurance　must　be　enterwoven　witht　he　simple　natural　Interest；　which　may　advance　the　Usury　very　conscionably　unto　any　height　below　the　Principal　it　self。　Now　if　things　are　so　in　England；　that　really　there　is　no　such　security　as　abovementioned；　but　that　all　are　more　or　less　hazardous；　troublesome；　or　chargeable　to　make；　I　see　no　reason　for　endouvering　to　limit　Usury　upon　time；　any　more　than　that　upon　place；　which　the　practice　of　the　world　doth　not；　unless　it　be　that　those　who　make　such　Laws　were　rather　Borrowers　then　Lenders：　But　of　the　vanity　and　fruitlessness　of　making　Civil　Positive　Laws　against　the　Laws　of　Nature；　I　have　spoken　elsewhere；　and　instanced　in　several　particulars。　　　　　4。　As　for　the　natural　measures　of　Exchange；　I　say；　that　in　times　of　Peace；　the　gre