mc.eatersofthedead-第30节

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ecrated　a　monument。　But　Beowulf　scholars　all　seem　to　enjoy　it；　and　many　have　written　to　say　so。
　M。C。
　DECEMBER　1992
　
NOTE：　The　unprintable　Arabic　script　found　in　the　footnotes　of　the　original　paper　version　has　been　rendered　as　〃（。。。）〃　in　this　e…text　version。　…Russell

1　Throughout　the　manuscript；　Ibn　Fadlan　is　inexact　about　the　size　and　position　of　his　party。　Whether　this　apparent　carelessness　reflects　his　assumption　that　the　reader　knows　the　position　of　the　caravan；　or　whether　it　is　a　consequence　of　lost　passages　of　the　text；　one　cannot　be　sure。　Social　conventions　may　also　be　a　factor；　for　Ibn　Fadlan　never　states　that　his　party　is　greater　than　a　few　individuals；　when　in　fact　it　probably　numbered　a　hundred　people　or　more；　and　twice　as　many　horses　and　camels。　But　Ibn　Fadlan　does　not　count…literally…slaves；　servants；　and　lesser　members　of　the　caravan。
2　Farzan；　an　unabashed　admirer　of　Ibn　Fadlan；　believes　that　this　paragraph　reveals　〃the　sensibility　of　a　modern　anthropologist；　recording　not　only　the　customs　of　a　people；　but　the　mechanisms　which　act　to　enforce　those　customs。　The　economic　meaning　of　killing　a　nomad　leader's　horses　is　the　approximate　equivalent　of　modern　death…taxes；　that　is；　it　tends　to　retard　the　accumulation　of　inherited　wealth　in　a　family。　Although　demanded　by　religion；　this　could　not　have　been　a　popular　practice；　any　more　than　it　is　during　the　present　day。　Ibn　Fadlan　most　astutely　demonstrates　the　way　it　is　imposed　upon　the　reluctant。〃
3　Actually；　Ibn　Fadlan's　word　for　them　here　was　〃Rus；〃　the　name　of　this　particular　tribe　of　Northmen。　In　the　text；　he　sometimes　calls　the　Scandinavians　by　their　particular　tribal　name；　and　sometimes　he　calls　them　〃Varangians〃　as　a　generic　term。　Historians　now　reserve　the　term　Varangian　for　the　Scandinavian　mercenaries　employed　by　the　Byzantine　Empire。　To　avoid　confusion；　in　this　translation　the　terms　〃Northmen〃　and　〃Norsemen〃　are　everywhere　employed。
4　Arabs　have　always　been　uneasy　about　translating　the　Koran。　The　earliest　sheiks　held　that　the　holy　book　could　not　be　translated；　an　injunction　apparently　based　on　religious　considerations。　But　everyone　who　has　attempted　a　translation　agrees　for　the　most　secular　reasons：　Arabic　is　by　nature　a　succinct　language；　and　the　Koran　is　posed　as　poetry　and　therefore　even　more　concentrated。　The　difficulties　of　conveying　literal　meaning…to　say　nothing　of　the　grace　and　elegance　of　the　original　Arabic…have　led　translators　to　preface　their　work　with　prolonged　and　abject　apologies。
　　　At　the　same　time；　Islam　is　an　active；　expansive　way　of　thought；　and　the　tenth　century　was　one　of　its　peak　periods　of　dissemination。　This　expansion　inevitably　necessitated　translations　for　the　use　of　new　converts；　and　translations　were　made；　but　never　happily　from　the　standpoint　of　the　Arabs。
5　This　alone　was　startling　to　an　Arab　observer　from　a　warm　climate。　Muslim　practice　called　for　quick　burial；　often　the　same　day　as　the　death；　after　a　short　ceremony　of　ritual　washing　and　prayer。
6　Or；　possibly；　〃crazed。〃　The　Latin　manuscripts　read　cerritus；　but　the　Arabic　of　Yakut　says　（。。。）；　〃dazed〃　or　〃dazzled。〃
7　Interestingly；　in　both　Arabic　and　Latin；　literally　〃disease。〃
8　The　perils　of　translation　are　demonstrated　in　this　sentence。　The　original　Arabic　of　Yakut　reads　（。。。）　and　means　literally　〃There　is　no　name　I　can　speak。〃　The　Xymos　manuscript　employs　the　Latin　verb　dare；　with　the　meaning　〃I　cannot　give　it　a　name；〃　implying　that　the　interpreter　does　not　know　the　correct　word　in　a　non…Norse　tongue。　The　Razi　manuscript；　which　also　contains　the　interpreter's　speeches　in　fuller　detail；　uses　the　word　edere；　with　the　meaning　〃There　is　no　name　that　I　can　make　known　＇to　you＇。〃　This　is　the　more　correct　translation。　The　Northman　is　literally　afraid　to　say　the　word；　lest　it　call　up　demons。　In　Latin；　edere　has　the　sense　of　〃giving　birth　to〃　and　〃calling　up；〃　as　well　as　its　literal　meaning；　〃to　put　forth。〃　Later　paragraphs　confirm　this　sense　of　the　meaning。
9　Wulfgar　was　left　behind。　Jensen　states　the　Northmen　monly　held　a　messenger　as　hostage；　and　this　is　why　〃appropriate　messengers　were　the　sons　of　kings；　or　high　nobles；　or　other　persons　who　had　some　value　to　their　own　munity；　thus　making　them　fitting　hostages。〃　Olaf　Jorgensen　argues　that　Wulfgar　remained　behind　because　he　was　afraid　to　go　back。
10　Some　early　authors　apparently　thought　this　meant　that　the　sail　was　hemmed　in　rope；　there　are　eighteenth…century　drawings　that　show　the　Viking　sails　with　rope　borderings。　There　is　no　evidence　that　this　was　the　case；　Ibn　Fadlan　meant　that　the　sails　were　trimmed　in　the　nautical　sense；　i。e。；　angled　to　best　catch　the　wind；　by　the　use　of　sealskin　ropes　as　halyards。
11　This　is　a　typically　Muslim　sentiment。　Unlike　Christianity；　a　religion　which　in　many　ways　it　resembles；　Islam　does　not　emphasize　a　concept　of　original　sin　arising　from　the　fall　of　man。　Sin　for　a　Muslim　is　forgetfulness　in　carrying　out　the　prescribed　daily　rituals　of　the　religion。　As　a　corollary；　it　is　a　more　serious　offense　to　forget　the　ritual　entirely　than　to　remember　the　ritual　and　yet　fail　to　carry　it　out　either　through　extenuating　circumstances　or　personal　inadequacy。　Thus　Ibn　Fadlan　is　saying；　in　effect；　that　he　is　mindful　of　proper　conduct　even　though　he　is　not　acting　according　to　it；　this　is　better　than　nothing。
12　Other　eyewitness　accounts　disagree　with　Ibn　Fadlan's　description　of　the　treatment　of　slaves　and　adultery；　and　therefore　some　authorities　question　his　reliability　as　a　social　observer。　In　fact　there　was　probably　substantial　local　variation；　from　tribe　to　tribe；　in　the　accepted　treatment　of　slaves　and　unfaithful　wives。
13　There　is　some　dispute　among　modern　scholars　about　the　origin　of　the　term　〃Viking；〃　but　most　agree　with　Ibn　Fadlan；　that　it　derives　from　〃vik；〃　meaning　a　creek　or　narrow　river。
14　The　accuracy　of　Ibn　Fadlan's　reporting　is　confirmed　here　by　direct　archaeological　evidence。　In　1948　the　military　site　of　Trelleborg；　in　western　Zealand　in　Denmark；　was　excavated。　The　site　corresponds　exactly　to　Ibn　Fadlan's　description　of　the　size；　nature；　and　structure　of　the　settlement。
15　Literally；　〃a　two…handed　man。〃　As　will　be　clear　later；　the　Northmen　were　ambidextrous　in　fighting；　and　to　shift　weapons　from　one　hand　to　another　was　considered　an　admirable　trick。　Thus　a　two…handed　man　is　cunning。　A　related　meaning　was　once　attached　to　the　word　〃shifty；〃　which　now　means　deceitful　and　evasive；　but　formerly　had　a　more　positive　sense　of　〃resourceful；　full　of　maneuvers。〃
16　This　account　of　what　is　obviously　a　sighting　of　whales　is　disputed　by　many　scholars。　It　appears　in　the　manuscript　of　Razi　as　it　is　here；　but　in　Sjogren's　translation　it　is　much　briefer；　and　in　it　the　Northmen　are　shown　as　playing　an　elaborate　joke　upon　the　Arab。　The　Northmen　knew　about　whales　and　distinguished　them　from　sea　monsters；　according　to　Sjogren。　Other　scholars；　including　Hassan；　doubt　that　Ibn　Fadlan　could　be　unaware　of　the　existence　of　whales；　as　he　appears　to　be　here。
17　Popular　representations　of　the　Scandinavians　always　show　them　wearing　helmets　with　horns。　This　is　an　anachronism；　at　the　time　of　Ibn　Fadlan's　visit；　such　helmets　had　not　been　worn　for　more　than　a　thousand　years；　since　the　Early　Bronze　Age。
18　The　described　figurine　corresponds　closely　to　several　carvings　discovered　by　archaeologists　in　France　and　Austria。
19　Ducere　spiritu：　literally；　〃to　inhale。〃
20　This　is　not　the　same　〃angel　of　death〃　who　was　with　the　Northmen　on　the　banks　of　the　Volga。　Apparently　each　tribe　had　an　old　woman　who　performed　shamanistic　functions　and　was　referred　to　as　〃the　angel　of　death。〃　It　is　thus　a　generic　term。
21　The　Scandinavians　were　apparently　more　impressed　by　the　stealth　and　viciousness　of　the　creatures　than　the　fact　of　their　cannibalism。　Jensen　suggests　that　cannibalism　might　be　abhorrent　to　the　Norsemen　because　it　made　entry　into　Valhalla　more　difficult；　there　is　no　evidence　for　this　view。
　　　However；　for　Ibn　Fadlan；　with　his　extensive　erudition；　the　notion　of　cannibalism　may　have　implied　some　difficulties　in　the　afterlife。　The　Eater　of　the　Dead　is　a　well…known　creature　of　Egyptian　mythology；　a　fearsome　beast　with　the　head　of　a　crocodile；　the　trunk　of　a　lion；　and　the　back　of　a　hippopotamus。　This　Eater　of　the　Dead　devours　the　wicked　after　their　Judgment。
　　　It　is　worth　remembering　that　for　most　of　man's　history；　ritual　cannibalism；　in　one　form　or　another；　for　one　reason　or　another；　was　neither　rare　nor　remarkable。　Peking　man　and　Neanderthal　man　were　both　apparently　cannibals；　so　were；　at　various　times；　the　Scythians；　the　Chinese；　the　Irish；　the　Peruvians；　the　Mayoruna；　the　Jagas；　the　Egyptians；　the　Australian　aborigines；　the　Maoris；　the　Greeks；　the　Hurons；　the　Iroquois；　the　Pawnees；　and　the　Ashanti。
　　　During　the　time　Ibn　Fadlan　was　in　Scandinavia；　other　Arab　traders　were　in　China；　where　they　recorded　that　human　flesh…referred　to　as　〃two…legged　mutton〃…was　openly　and　legally　sold　in　markets。
　　　Martinson　suggests　that　the　Northmen　found　the　wendol　cannibalism　repellent　because　they　believed　that　the　flesh　of　warriors　was　fed　to　women；　particularly　the　mother　of　the　wendol。　There　is　no　evidence　for　this　view；　either；　but　it　would　certainly　make　a　Norse　warrior's　death　more　shameful。
22　An　Arab　would　be　especially　inclined