the civilization of the renaissance in italy-第87节

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1117　as　a　Divine　judgement　on　heresies；　among　others；　'on　the　luxurious　　and　gluttonous　sect　of　Epicureans。'　The　same　writer　says　of　Manfred；　　'His　life　was　Epicurean；　since　he　believed　neither　in　God；　nor　in　the　　Saints；　but　only　in　bodily　pleasure。'

Dante　speaks　still　more　clearly　in　the　ninth　and　tenth　cantos　of　the　　'Inferno。'　That　terrible　fiery　field　covered　with　half…opened　tombs；　　from　which　issued　cries　of　hopeless　agony；　was　peopled　by　the　two　great　　classes　of　those　whom　the　Church　had　vanquished　or　expelled　in　the　　thirteenth　century。　The　one　were　heretics　who　opposed　the　Church　by　　deliberately　spreading　false　doctrine；　the　other　were　Epicureans；　and　　their　sin　against　the　Church　lay　in　their　general　disposition；　which　　was　summed　up　in　the　belief　that　the　soul　dies　with　the　body。　The　　Church　was　well　aware　that　this　one　doctrine；　if　it　gained　ground；　must　　be　more　ruinous　to　her　authority　than　all　the　teachings　of　the　　Manichaeans　and　Paterines；　since　it　took　away　all　reason　for　her　　interference　in　the　affairs　of　men　after　death。　That　the　means　which　　she　used　in　her　struggles　were　precisely　what　had　driven　the　most　　gifted　natures　to　unbelief　and　despair　was　what　she　naturally　would　not　　herself　admit。

Dante's　loathing　of　Epicurus；　or　of　what　he　took　to　be　his　doctrine；　　was　certainly　sincere。　The　poet　of　the　life　to　come　could　not　but　　detest　the　denier　of　immortality；　and　a　world　neither　made　nor　ruled　by　　God；　no　less　than　the　vulgar　objects　of　earthly　life　which　the　system　　appeared　to　countenance；　could　not　but　be　intensely　repugnant　to　a　　nature　like　his。　But　if　we　look　closer；　we　find　that　certain　doctrines　　of　the　ancients　made　even　on　him　an　impression　which　forced　the　　biblical　doctrine　of　the　Divine　government　into　the　background　unless；　　indeed；　it　was　his　own　reflection；　the　influence　of　opinions　then　　prevalent；　or　loathing　for　the　injustice　that　seemed　to　rule　this　　world；　which　made　him　give　up　the　belief　in　a　special　Providence　His　　God　leaves　all　the　details　of　the　world's　government　to　a　deputy；　　Fortune；　whose　sole　work　it　is　to　change　and　change　again　all　earthly　　things；　and　who　can　disregard　the　wailings　of　men　in　unalterable　　beatitude。　Nevertheless；　Dante　does　not　for　a　moment　fail　to　insist　on　　the　moral　responsibility　of　man；　he　believes　in　free　will。　The　belief　　in　the　freedom　of　the　will；　in　the　popular　sense　of　the　words；　has　　always　prevailed　in　Western　countries。　At　all　times　men　have　been　held　　responsible　for　their　actions；　as　though　this　freedom　were　a　matter　of　　course。　The　case　is　otherwise　with　the　religious　and　philosophical　　doctrine；　which　labors　under　the　difficulty　of　harmonizing　the　nature　　of　the　will　with　the　laws　of　the　universe　at　large。　We　have　here　to　do　　with　a　question　of　more　or　less；　which　every　moral　estimate　must　take　　into　account。　Dante　is　not　wholly　free　from　those　astrological　　superstitions　which　illumined　the　horizon　of　his　time　with　deceptive　　light；　but　they　do　not　hinder　him　from　rising　to　a　worthy　conception　of　　human　nature。　'The　stars；'　he　makes　his　Marco　Lambert　say　　（'Purgatorio；'　xvi；　73）；　'the　stars　give　the　first　impulse　to　your　　actions；　but　a　light　is　given　you　to　know　good　and　evil；　and　free　will；　　which；　if　it　endure　the　strain　in　its　first　battlings　with　the　heavens；　　at　length　gains　the　whole　victory；　if　it　be　well　nurtured。'

Others　might　seek　the　necessity　which　annulled　human　freedom　in　another　　power　than　the　stars；　but　the　question　was　henceforth　an　open　and　　inevitable　one。　So　far　as　it　was　a　question　for　the　schools　or　the　　pursuit　of　isolated　thinkers；　its　treatment　belongs　to　the　historian　of　　philosophy。　But　inasmuch　as　it　entered　into　the　consciousness　of　a　　wider　public；　it　is　necessary　for　us　to　say　a　few　words　respecting　it。

The　fourteenth　century　was　chiefly　stimulated　by　the　writings　of　　Cicero；　who；　though　in　fact　an　eclectic；　yet；　by　his　habit　of　setting　　forth　the　opinions　of　different　schools；　without　coming　to　a　decision　　between　them；　exercised　the　influence　of　a　skeptic。　Next　in　importance　　came　Seneca；　and　the　few　works　of　Aristotle　which　had　been　translated　　into　Latin。　The　immediate　fruit　of　these　studies　was　the　capacity　to　　reflect　on　great　subjects；　if　not　in　direct　opposition　to　the　authority　　of　the　Church；　at　all　events　independently　of　it。

In　the　course　of　the　fifteenth　century　the　works　of　antiquity　were　　discovered　and　diffused　with　extraordinary　rapidity。　All　the　writings　　of　the　Greek　philosophers　which　we　ourselves　possess　were　now；　at　least　　in　the　form　of　Latin　translations；　in　everybody's　hands。　It　is　a　　curious　fact　that　some　of　the　most　zealous　apostles　of　this　new　culture　　were　men　of　the　strictest　piety；　or　even　ascetics。　Fra　Ambrogio　　Camaldolese；　as　a　spiritual　dignitary　chiefly　occupied　with　　ecclesiastical　affairs；　and　as　a　literary　man　with　the　translation　of　　the　Greek　Fathers　of　the　Church；　could　not　repress　the　humanistic　　impulse；　and　at　the　request　of　Cosimo　de'　Medici；　undertook　to　　translate　Diogenes　Laertius　into　Latin。　His　contemporaries；　Niccolo　　Niccoli；　Giannozzo　Manetti；　Donato　Acciaiuoli；　and　Pope　Nicholas　V；　　united　to　a　many…sided　humanism　profound　biblical　scholarship　and　deep　　piety。　In　Vittorino　da　Feltre　the　same　temper　has　been　already　noticed。　　The　same　Maffeo　Vegio；　who　added　a　thirteenth　book　to　the　Aeneid；　had　　an　enthusiasm　for　the　memory　of　St。　Augustine　and　his　mother；　Monica；　　which　cannot　have　been　without　a　deeper　influence　upon　him。　The　result　　of　all　these　tendencies　was　that　the　Platonic　Academy　at　Florence　　deliberately　chose　for　its　object　the　reconciliation　of　the　spirit　of　　antiquity　with　that　of　Christianity。　It　was　a　remarkable　oasis　in　the　　humanism　of　the　period。

This　humanism　was　in　fact　pagan；　and　became　more　and　more　so　as　its　　sphere　widened　in　the　fifteenth　century。　Its　representatives；　whom　we　　have　already　described　as　the　advance　guard　of　an　unbridled　　individualism；　display　as　a　rule　such　a　character　that　even　their　　religion；　which　is　sometimes　professed　very　definitely；　becomes　a　　matter　of　indifference　to　us。　They　easily　got　the　name　of　atheists；　if　　they　showed　themselves　indifferent　to　religion　and　spoke　freely　against　　the　Church；　but　not　one　of　them　ever　professed；　or　dared　to　profess；　a　　formal；　philosophical　atheism。　If　they　sought　for　any　leading　　principle；　it　must　have　been　a　kind　of　superficial　rationalisma　　careless　inference　from　the　many　and　contradictory　opinions　of　　antiquity　with　which　they　busied　themselves；　and　from　the　discredit　　into　which　the　Church　and　her　doctrines　had　fallen　This　was　the　sort　of　　reasoning　which　was　near　bringing　Galeotto　Martio　to　the　stake；　had　not　　his　former　pupil；　Pope　Sixtus　IV；　perhaps　at　the　request　of　Lorenzo　de'　　Medici；　saved　him　from　the　hands　of　the　Inquisition。　Galeotto　had　　ventured　to　write　that　the　man　who　lived　uprightly；　and　acted　according　　to　the　natural　law　born　within　him；　would　go　to　heaven；　whatever　nation　　he　belonged　to。

Let　us　take；　by　way　of　example；　the　religious　attitude　of　one　of　the　　smaller　men　in　the　great　army。　Codrus　Urceus　was　first　the　tutor　of　the　　last　Ordelaffo；　Prince　of　Forli；　and　afterwards　for　many　years　　professor　at　Bologna。　Against　the　Church　and　the　monks　his　language　is　　as　abusive　as　that　of　the　rest。　His　tone　in　general　is　reckless　to　the　　last　degree；　and　he　constantly　introduces　himself　in　all　his　local　　history　and　gossip。　But　he　knows　how　to　speak　to　the　edification　of　the　　true　God…Man；　Jesus　Christ；　and　to　commend　himself　by　letter　to　the　　prayers　of　a　saintly　priest。　On　one　occasion；　after　enumerating　the　　follies　of　the　pagan　religions；　he　thus　goes　on：　'Our　theologians；　too；　　quarrel　about　〃the　guinea…pig's　tail；〃　about　the　Immaculate　Conception；　　Antichrist；　Sacraments；　Predestination；　and　other　things；　which　were　　better　let　alone　than　talked　of　publicly。'　Once；　when　he　was　not　at　　home；　his　room　and　manuscripts　were　burnt。　When　he　heard　the　news　he　　stood　opposite　a　figure　of　the　Madonna　in　the　street；　and　cried　to　it：　　'Listen　to　what　I　tell　you；　I　am　not　mad；　I　am　saying　what　I　mean。　If　I　　ever　call　upon　you　in　the　hour　of　my　death；　you　need　not　hear　me　or　　take　me　among　your　own；　for　I　will　go　and　spend　eternity　with　the　　devil。'　After　which　speech　he　found　it　desirable　to　spend　six　months　in　　retirement　at　the　home　of　a　woodcutter。　With　all　this；　he　was　so　　superstitious　that　prodigies　and　omens　gave　him　incessant　frights；　　leaving　him　no　belief　to　spare　for　the　immortality　of　the　soul。　When　　his　hearers　questioned　him　on　the　matter；　he　answered　that　no　one　knew　　what　became　of　a　man；　of　his　soul　or　his　spirit；　after　death；　and　the　　talk　about　another　life　was　only　fit　to　frighten　old　women。　But　when　he　　came　to　die；　he　commended　in　his　will　his　soul　or　his　spirit　to　　Almighty　God；　exhorted　his　weeping　pupils　to　fear　the　Lord；　and　　especially　to　believe　in　immortality　and　future　retribution；　and　　received　the　Sacrament　with　much　fervor。　We　have　no　guarantee　that　more　　famous　men　in　the　same　calling；　however　significant　their　opinions　may　　be；　were　in　practical　life　any　more　consistent。　It　is　probable　that　　most　of　them　wavered　inwardly　between　incredulity　and　a　remnant　of　the　　faith　in　which　they　were　brought　up；　an