what is property-第75节

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history　does　not　lie　there；　the　destinies　of　the　world　are　not　dependent　upon　such　trivial　causes。　　The　passions　of　men；　like　the　contingencies　of　time　and　the　varieties　of　climate；　serve　to　maintain　the　forces　which　move　humanity　and　produce　all　historical　changes；　but　they　do　not　explain　them。　　The　grain　of　sand　of　which　Pascal　speaks　would　have　caused　the　death　of　one　man　only；　had　not　prior　action　ordered　the　events　of　which　this　death　was　the　precursor。

Montesquieu　has　read　extensively；　he　knows　Roman　history　thoroughly；　is　perfectly　well　acquainted　with　the　people　of　whom　he　speaks；　and　sees　very　clearly　why　they　were　able　to　conquer　their　rivals　and　govern　the　world。　　While　reading　him　we　admire　the　Romans；　but　we　do　not　like　them；　we　witness　their　triumphs　without　pleasure；　and　we　watch　their　fall　without　sorrow。　　Montesquieu's　work；　like　the　works　of　all　French　writers；　is　skilfully　composed；spirited；　witty；　and　filled　with　wise　observations。　　He　pleases；　interests；　instructs；　but　leads　to　little　reflection；　he　does　not　conquer　by　depth　of　thought；　he　does　not　exalt　the　mind　by　elevated　reason　or　earnest　feeling。　　In　vain　should　we　search　his　writings　for　knowledge　of　antiquity；　the　character　of　primitive　society；　or　a　description　of　the　heroic　ages；　whose　morals　and　prejudices　lived　until　the　last　days　of　the　republic。　　Vico；　painting　the　Romans　with　their　horrible　traits；　represents　them　as　excusable；　because　he　shows　that　all　their　conduct　was　governed　by　preexisting　ideas　and　customs；　and　that　they　were　informed；　so　to　speak；　by　a　superior　genius　of　which　they　were　unconscious；　in　Montesquieu；　the　Roman　atrocity　revolts；　but　is　not　explained。　　Therefore；　as　a　writer；　Montesquieu　brings　greater　credit　upon　French　literature；　as　a　philosopher；　Vico　bears　away　the　palm。

Originally；　property　in　Rome　was　national；　not　private。　　Numa　was　the　first　to　establish　individual　property　by　distributing　the　lands　captured　by　Romulus。　　What　was　the　dividend　of　this　distribution　effected　by　Numa？　　What　conditions　were　imposed　upon　individuals；　what　powers　reserved　to　the　State？　　None　whatever。　　Inequality　of　fortunes；　absolute　abdication　by　the　republic　of　its　right　of　eminent　domain　over　the　property　of　citizens；such　were　the　first　results　of　the　division　of　Numa；　who　justly　may　be　regarded　as　the　originator　of　Roman　revolutions。　　He　it　was　who　instituted　the　worship　of　the　god　Terminus；the　guardian　of　private　possession；　and　one　of　the　most　ancient　gods　of　Italy。　　It　was　Numa　who　placed　property　under　the　protection　of　Jupiter；　who；　in　imitation　of　the　Etrurians；　wished　to　make　priests　of　the　land…surveyors；　who　invented　a　liturgy　for　cadastral　operations；　and　ceremonies　of　consecration　for　the　marking　of　boundaries；　who；　in　short；　made　a　religion　of　property。＇1＇　　All　these　fancies　would　have　been　more　beneficial　than　dangerous；　if　the　holy　king　had　not　forgotten　one　essential　thing；　namely；　to　fix　the　amount　that　each　citizen　could　possess；　and　on　what　conditions　he　could　possess　it。　　For；　since　it　is　the　essence　of　property　to　continually　increase　by　accession　and　profit；　and　since　the　lender　will　take　advantage　of　every　opportunity　to　apply　this　principle　inherent　in　property；　it　follows　that　properties　tend；　by　means　of　their　natural　energy　and　the　religious　respect　which　protects　them；　to　absorb　each　other；　and　fortunes　to　increase　or　diminish　to　an　indefinite　extent；a　process　which　necessarily　results　in　the　ruin　of　the　people；　and　the　fall　of　the　republic。　　Roman　history　is　but　the　development　of　this　law。

＇1＇　　Similar　or　analogous　customs　have　existed　among　all　nations。　Consult；　among　other　works；　〃Origin　of　French　Law；〃　by　M。　Michelet；　and　〃Antiquities　of　German　Law；〃　by　Grimm。




Scarcely　had　the　Tarquins　been　banished　from　Rome　and　the　monarchy　abolished；　when　quarrels　commenced　between　the　orders。　　In　the　year　494　B。C。；　the　secession　of　the　commonalty　to　the　Mons　Sacer　led　to　the　establishment　of　the　tribunate。　　Of　what　did　the　plebeians　complain？　　That　they　were　poor；　exhausted　by　the　interest　which　they　paid　to　the　proprietors；_foeneratoribus；_　that　the　republic；　administered　for　the　benefit　of　the　nobles；　did　nothing　for　the　people；　that；　delivered　over　to　the　mercy　of　their　creditors；　who　could　sell　them　and　their　children；　and　having　neither　hearth　nor　home；　they　were　refused　the　means　of　subsistence；　while　the　rate　of　interest　was　kept　at　its　highest　point；　&c。　　For　five　centuries；　the　sole　policy　of　the　Senate　was　to　evade　these　just　complaints；　and；　notwithstanding　the　energy　of　the　tribunes；　notwithstanding　the　eloquence　of　the　Gracchi；　the　violence　of　Marius；　and　the　triumph　of　Caesar；　this　execrable　policy　succeeded　only　too　well。　　The　Senate　always　temporized；　the　measures　proposed　by　the　tribunes　might　be　good；　but　they　were　inopportune。　　It　admitted　that　something　should　be　done；　but　first　it　was　necessary　that　the　people　should　resume　the　performance　of　their　duties；　because　the　Senate　could　not　yield　to　violence；　and　force　must　be　employed　only　by　the　law。　　If　the　peopleout　of　respect　for　legalitytook　this　beautiful　advice；　the　Senate　conjured　up　a　difficulty；　the　reform　was　postponed；　and　that　was　the　end　of　it。　　On　the　contrary；　if　the　demands　of　the　proletaires　became　too　pressing；　it　declared　a　foreign　war；　and　neighboring　nations　were　deprived　of　their　liberty；　to　maintain　the　Roman　aristocracy。

But　the　toils　of　war　were　only　a　halt　for　the　plebeians　in　their　onward　march　towards　pauperism。　　The　lands　confiscated　from　the　conquered　nations　were　immediately　added　to　the　domain　of　the　State；　to　the　ager　publicus；　and；　as　such；　cultivated　for　the　benefit　of　the　treasury；　or；　as　was　more　often　the　case；　they　were　sold　at　auction。　　None　of　them　were　granted　to　the　proletaires；　who；　unlike　the　patricians　and　knights；　were　not　supplied　by　the　victory　with　the　means　of　buying　them。　　War　never　enriched　the　soldier；　the　extensive　plundering　has　been　done　always　by　the　generals。　　The　vans　of　Augereau；　and　of　twenty　others；　are　famous　in　our　armies；　but　no　one　ever　heard　of　a　private　getting　rich。　　Nothing　was　more　common　in　Rome　than　charges　of　peculation；　extortion；　embezzlement；　and　brigandage；　carried　on　in　the　provinces　at　the　head　of　armies；　and　in　other　public　capacities。　　All　these　charges　were　quieted　by　intrigue；　bribery　of　the　judges；　or　desistance　of　the　accuser。　　The　culprit　was　allowed　always　in　the　end　to　enjoy　his　spoils　in　peace；　his　son　was　only　the　more　respected　on　account　of　his　father's　crimes。　　And；　in　fact；　it　could　not　be　otherwise。　　What　would　become　of　us；　if　every　deputy；　peer；　or　public　functionary　should　be　called　upon　to　show　his　title　to　his　fortune！


〃The　patricians　arrogated　the　exclusive　enjoyment　of　the　ager　publicus；　and；　like　the　feudal　seigniors；　granted　some　portions　of　their　lands　to　their　dependants；a　wholly　precarious　concession；　revocable　at　the　will　of　the　grantor。　　The　plebeians；　on　the　contrary；　were　entitled　to　the　enjoyment　of　only　a　little　pasture…land　left　to　them　in　common：　an　utterly　unjust　state　of　things；　since；　in　consequence　of　it；　taxation_census_weighed　more　heavily　upon　the　poor　than　upon　the　rich。　　The　patrician；　in　fact；　always　exempted　himself　from　the　tithe　which　he　owed　as　the　price　and　as　the　acknowledgment　of　the　concession　of　domain；　and；　on　the　other　hand；　paid　no　taxes　on　his　POSSESSIONS；　if；　as　there　is　good　reason　to　believe；　only　citizens'　property　was　taxed。〃Laboulaye：　History　of　Property。


In　order　thoroughly　to　understand　the　preceding　quotation；　we　must　know　that　the　estates　of　CITIZENSthat　is；　estates　independent　of　the　public　domain；　whether　they　were　obtained　in　the　division　of　Numa；　or　had　since　been　sold　by　the　questors　were　alone　regarded　as　PROPERTY；　upon　these　a　tax；　or　_cense_；　was　imposed。　　On　the　contrary；　the　estates　obtained　by　concessions　of　the　public　domain；　of　the　ager　publicus　（for　which　a　light　rent　was　paid）；　were　called　POSSESSIONS。　　Thus；　among　the　Romans；　there　was　a　RIGHT　OF　PROPERTY　and　a　RIGHT　OF　POSSESSION　regulating　the　administration　of　all　estates。　　Now；　what　did　the　proletaires　wish？　　That　the　jus　possessionisthe　simple　right　of　possessionshould　be　extended　to　them　at　the　expense；　as　is　evident；　not　of　private　property；　but　of　the　public　domain；agri　publici。　　The　proletaires；　in　short；　demanded　that　they　should　be　tenants　of　the　land　which　they　had　conquered。　　This　demand；　the　patricians　in　their　avarice　never　would　accede　to。　　Buying　as　much　of　this　land　as　they　could；　they　afterwards　found　means　of　obtaining　the　rest　as　POSSESSIONS。　　Upon　this　land　they　employed　their　slaves。　　The　people；　who　could　not　buy；　on　account　of　the　competition　of　the　rich；　nor　hire；　becausecultivating　with　their　own　handsthey　could　not　promise　a　rent　equal　to　the　revenue　which　the　land　would　yield　when　cultivated　by　slaves；　were　always　deprived　of　possession　and　property。

Civil　wars　relieved；　to　some　extent；　the　sufferings　of　the　multitude。　　〃The　people　enrolled　themselves　under　the　banners　of　the　ambitious；　in　order　to　obtain　by　force　that　which　the　law　refused　them；property。　　A　colony　was　the　reward　of　a　victorious　legion。　　But　it　was　no　longer　the　ager　publicus　only；　it　was　all　Italy　that　lay　at　the　mer