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e¡¡hands¡¡of¡¡the¡¡occupant¡¡into¡¡those¡¡of¡¡the¡¡proprietor¡¡in¡¡the¡¡name¡¡of¡¡increase£»¡¡and¡¡as¡¡the¡¡price¡¡of¡¡the¡¡permission¡¡to¡¡occupy£»¡¡is¡¡a¡¡permanent¡¡gain¡¡for¡¡the¡¡latter£»¡¡and¡¡a¡¡dead¡¡loss¡¡and¡¡annihilation¡¡for¡¡the¡¡former£»¡¡to¡¡whom¡¡none¡¡of¡¡it¡¡will¡¡return£»¡¡save¡¡in¡¡the¡¡forms¡¡of¡¡gift£»¡¡alms£»¡¡wages¡¡paid¡¡for¡¡his¡¡services£»¡¡or¡¡the¡¡price¡¡of¡¡merchandise¡¡which¡¡he¡¡has¡¡delivered¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡a¡¡word£»¡¡increase¡¡perishes¡¡so¡¡far¡¡as¡¡the¡¡borrower¡¡is¡¡concerned£»¡¡or¡¡to¡¡use¡¡the¡¡more¡¡energetic¡¡Latin¡¡phrase£»_res¡¡perit¡¡solventi_¡£

3¡£¡¡THE¡¡RIGHT¡¡OF¡¡INCREASE¡¡OPPRESSES¡¡THE¡¡PROPRIETOR¡¡AS¡¡WELL¡¡AS¡¡THE¡¡STRANGER¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡master¡¡of¡¡a¡¡thing£»¡¡as¡¡its¡¡proprietor£»¡¡levies¡¡a¡¡tax¡¡for¡¡the¡¡use¡¡of¡¡his¡¡property¡¡upon¡¡himself¡¡as¡¡its¡¡possessor£»¡¡equal¡¡to¡¡that¡¡which¡¡he¡¡would¡¡receive¡¡from¡¡a¡¡third¡¡party£»¡¡so¡¡that¡¡capital¡¡bears¡¡interest¡¡in¡¡the¡¡hands¡¡of¡¡the¡¡capitalist£»¡¡as¡¡well¡¡as¡¡in¡¡those¡¡of¡¡the¡¡borrower¡¡and¡¡the¡¡commandite¡£¡¡¡¡If£»¡¡indeed£»¡¡rather¡¡than¡¡accept¡¡a¡¡rent¡¡of¡¡five¡¡hundred¡¡francs¡¡for¡¡my¡¡apartment£»¡¡I¡¡prefer¡¡to¡¡occupy¡¡and¡¡enjoy¡¡it£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡clear¡¡that¡¡I¡¡shall¡¡become¡¡my¡¡own¡¡debtor¡¡for¡¡a¡¡rent¡¡equal¡¡to¡¡that¡¡which¡¡I¡¡deny¡¡myself¡£¡¡¡¡This¡¡principle¡¡is¡¡universally¡¡practised¡¡in¡¡business£»¡¡and¡¡is¡¡regarded¡¡as¡¡an¡¡axiom¡¡by¡¡the¡¡economists¡£¡¡¡¡Manufacturers£»¡¡also£»¡¡who¡¡have¡¡the¡¡advantage¡¡of¡¡being¡¡proprietors¡¡of¡¡their¡¡floating¡¡capital£»¡¡although¡¡they¡¡owe¡¡no¡¡interest¡¡to¡¡any¡¡one£»¡¡in¡¡calculating¡¡their¡¡profits¡¡subtract¡¡from¡¡them£»¡¡not¡¡only¡¡their¡¡running¡¡expenses¡¡and¡¡the¡¡wages¡¡of¡¡their¡¡employees£»¡¡but¡¡also¡¡the¡¡interest¡¡on¡¡their¡¡capital¡£¡¡¡¡For¡¡the¡¡same¡¡reason£»¡¡money¡­lenders¡¡retain¡¡in¡¡their¡¡own¡¡possession¡¡as¡¡little¡¡money¡¡as¡¡possible£»¡¡for£»¡¡since¡¡all¡¡capital¡¡necessarily¡¡bears¡¡interest£»¡¡if¡¡this¡¡interest¡¡is¡¡supplied¡¡by¡¡no¡¡one£»¡¡it¡¡comes¡¡out¡¡of¡¡the¡¡capital£»¡¡which¡¡is¡¡to¡¡that¡¡extent¡¡diminished¡£¡¡¡¡Thus£»¡¡by¡¡the¡¡right¡¡of¡¡increase£»¡¡capital¡¡eats¡¡itself¡¡up¡£¡¡¡¡This¡¡is£»¡¡doubtless£»¡¡the¡¡idea¡¡that¡¡Papinius¡¡intended¡¡to¡¡convey¡¡in¡¡the¡¡phrase£»¡¡as¡¡elegant¡¡as¡¡it¡¡is¡¡forcible_Foenus¡¡mordet¡¡solidam_¡£¡¡¡¡I¡¡beg¡¡pardon¡¡for¡¡using¡¡Latin¡¡so¡¡frequently¡¡in¡¡discussing¡¡this¡¡subject£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡an¡¡homage¡¡which¡¡I¡¡pay¡¡to¡¡the¡¡most¡¡usurious¡¡nation¡¡that¡¡ever¡¡existed¡£


FIRST¡¡PROPOSITION¡£

Property¡¡is¡¡impossible£»¡¡because¡¡it¡¡demands¡¡Something¡¡for¡¡Nothing¡£


The¡¡discussion¡¡of¡¡this¡¡proposition¡¡covers¡¡the¡¡same¡¡ground¡¡as¡¡that¡¡of¡¡the¡¡origin¡¡of¡¡farm¡­rent£»¡¡which¡¡is¡¡so¡¡much¡¡debated¡¡by¡¡the¡¡economists¡£¡¡¡¡When¡¡I¡¡read¡¡the¡¡writings¡¡of¡¡the¡¡greater¡¡part¡¡of¡¡these¡¡men£»¡¡I¡¡cannot¡¡avoid¡¡a¡¡feeling¡¡of¡¡contempt¡¡mingled¡¡with¡¡anger£»¡¡in¡¡view¡¡of¡¡this¡¡mass¡¡of¡¡nonsense£»¡¡in¡¡which¡¡the¡¡detestable¡¡vies¡¡with¡¡the¡¡absurd¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡would¡¡be¡¡a¡¡repetition¡¡of¡¡the¡¡story¡¡of¡¡the¡¡elephant¡¡in¡¡the¡¡moon£»¡¡were¡¡it¡¡not¡¡for¡¡the¡¡atrocity¡¡of¡¡the¡¡consequences¡£¡¡¡¡To¡¡seek¡¡a¡¡rational¡¡and¡¡legitimate¡¡origin¡¡of¡¡that¡¡which¡¡is£»¡¡and¡¡ever¡¡must¡¡be£»¡¡only¡¡robbery£»¡¡extortion£»¡¡and¡¡plunderthat¡¡must¡¡be¡¡the¡¡height¡¡of¡¡the¡¡proprietor's¡¡folly£»¡¡the¡¡last¡¡degree¡¡of¡¡bedevilment¡¡into¡¡which¡¡minds£»¡¡otherwise¡¡judicious£»¡¡can¡¡be¡¡thrown¡¡by¡¡the¡¡perversity¡¡of¡¡selfishness¡£


¡¨A¡¡farmer£»¡¨¡¡says¡¡Say£»¡¡¡¨is¡¡a¡¡wheat¡¡manufacturer¡¡who£»¡¡among¡¡other¡¡tools¡¡which¡¡serve¡¡him¡¡in¡¡modifying¡¡the¡¡material¡¡from¡¡which¡¡he¡¡makes¡¡the¡¡wheat£»¡¡employs¡¡one¡¡large¡¡tool£»¡¡which¡¡we¡¡call¡¡a¡¡field¡£¡¡¡¡If¡¡he¡¡is¡¡not¡¡the¡¡proprietor¡¡of¡¡the¡¡field£»¡¡if¡¡he¡¡is¡¡only¡¡a¡¡tenant£»¡¡he¡¡pays¡¡the¡¡proprietor¡¡for¡¡the¡¡productive¡¡service¡¡of¡¡this¡¡tool¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡tenant¡¡is¡¡reimbursed¡¡by¡¡the¡¡purchaser£»¡¡the¡¡latter¡¡by¡¡another£»¡¡until¡¡the¡¡product¡¡reaches¡¡the¡¡consumer£»¡¡who¡¡redeems¡¡the¡¡first¡¡payment£»¡¡PLUS¡¡all¡¡the¡¡others£»¡¡by¡¡means¡¡of¡¡which¡¡the¡¡product¡¡has¡¡at¡¡last¡¡come¡¡into¡¡his¡¡hands¡£¡¨


Let¡¡us¡¡lay¡¡aside¡¡the¡¡subsequent¡¡payments¡¡by¡¡which¡¡the¡¡product¡¡reaches¡¡the¡¡consumer£»¡¡and£»¡¡for¡¡the¡¡present£»¡¡pay¡¡attention¡¡only¡¡to¡¡the¡¡first¡¡one¡¡of¡¡all£»the¡¡rent¡¡paid¡¡to¡¡the¡¡proprietor¡¡by¡¡the¡¡tenant¡£¡¡¡¡On¡¡what¡¡ground£»¡¡we¡¡ask£»¡¡is¡¡the¡¡proprietor¡¡entitled¡¡to¡¡this¡¡rent£¿

According¡¡to¡¡Ricardo£»¡¡MacCulloch£»¡¡and¡¡Mill£»¡¡farm¡­rent£»¡¡properly¡¡speaking£»¡¡is¡¡simply¡¡the¡¡EXCESS¡¡OF¡¡THE¡¡PRODUCT¡¡OF¡¡THE¡¡MOST¡¡FERTILE¡¡LAND¡¡OVER¡¡THAT¡¡OF¡¡LANDS¡¡OF¡¡AN¡¡INFERIOR¡¡QUALITY£»¡¡so¡¡that¡¡farm¡­rent¡¡is¡¡not¡¡demanded¡¡for¡¡the¡¡former¡¡until¡¡the¡¡increase¡¡of¡¡population¡¡renders¡¡necessary¡¡the¡¡cultivation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡latter¡£

It¡¡is¡¡difficult¡¡to¡¡see¡¡any¡¡sense¡¡in¡¡this¡£¡¡¡¡How¡¡can¡¡a¡¡right¡¡to¡¡the¡¡land¡¡be¡¡based¡¡upon¡¡a¡¡difference¡¡in¡¡the¡¡quality¡¡of¡¡the¡¡land£¿¡¡¡¡How¡¡can¡¡varieties¡¡of¡¡soil¡¡engender¡¡a¡¡principle¡¡of¡¡legislation¡¡and¡¡politics£¿¡¡¡¡This¡¡reasoning¡¡is¡¡either¡¡so¡¡subtle£»¡¡or¡¡so¡¡stupid£»¡¡that¡¡the¡¡more¡¡I¡¡think¡¡of¡¡it£»¡¡the¡¡more¡¡bewildered¡¡I¡¡become¡£¡¡¡¡Suppose¡¡two¡¡pieces¡¡of¡¡land¡¡of¡¡equal¡¡area£»¡¡the¡¡one£»¡¡A£»¡¡capable¡¡of¡¡supporting¡¡ten¡¡thousand¡¡inhabitants£»¡¡the¡¡other£»¡¡B£»¡¡capable¡¡of¡¡supporting¡¡nine¡¡thousand¡¡only£º¡¡when£»¡¡owing¡¡to¡¡an¡¡increase¡¡in¡¡their¡¡number£»¡¡the¡¡inhabitants¡¡of¡¡A¡¡shall¡¡be¡¡forced¡¡to¡¡cultivate¡¡B£»¡¡the¡¡landed¡¡proprietors¡¡of¡¡A¡¡will¡¡exact¡¡from¡¡their¡¡tenants¡¡in¡¡A¡¡a¡¡rent¡¡proportional¡¡to¡¡the¡¡difference¡¡between¡¡ten¡¡and¡¡nine¡£¡¡¡¡So¡¡say£»¡¡I¡¡think£»¡¡Ricardo£»¡¡MacCulloch£»¡¡and¡¡Mill¡£¡¡¡¡But¡¡if¡¡A¡¡supports¡¡as¡¡many¡¡inhabitants¡¡as¡¡it¡¡can¡¡contain£»that¡¡is£»¡¡if¡¡the¡¡inhabitants¡¡of¡¡A£»¡¡by¡¡our¡¡hypothesis£»¡¡have¡¡only¡¡just¡¡enough¡¡land¡¡to¡¡keep¡¡them¡¡alive£»how¡¡can¡¡they¡¡pay¡¡farm¡­rent£¿

If¡¡they¡¡had¡¡gone¡¡no¡¡farther¡¡than¡¡to¡¡say¡¡that¡¡the¡¡difference¡¡in¡¡land¡¡has¡¡OCCASIONED¡¡farm¡­rent£»¡¡instead¡¡of¡¡CAUSED¡¡it£»¡¡this¡¡observation¡¡would¡¡have¡¡taught¡¡us¡¡a¡¡valuable¡¡lesson£»¡¡namely£»¡¡that¡¡farm¡­rent¡¡grew¡¡out¡¡of¡¡a¡¡desire¡¡for¡¡equality¡£¡¡¡¡Indeed£»¡¡if¡¡all¡¡men¡¡have¡¡an¡¡equal¡¡right¡¡to¡¡the¡¡possession¡¡of¡¡good¡¡land£»¡¡no¡¡one¡¡can¡¡be¡¡forced¡¡to¡¡cultivate¡¡bad¡¡land¡¡without¡¡indemnification¡£¡¡¡¡Farm¡­¡¡rentaccording¡¡to¡¡Ricardo£»¡¡MacCulloch£»¡¡and¡¡Millwould¡¡then¡¡have¡¡been¡¡a¡¡compensation¡¡for¡¡loss¡¡and¡¡hardship¡£¡¡¡¡This¡¡system¡¡of¡¡practical¡¡equality¡¡is¡¡a¡¡bad¡¡one£»¡¡no¡¡doubt£»¡¡but¡¡it¡¡sprang¡¡from¡¡good¡¡intentions¡£¡¡¡¡What¡¡argument¡¡can¡¡Ricardo£»¡¡MacCulloch£»¡¡and¡¡Mill¡¡develop¡¡therefrom¡¡in¡¡favor¡¡of¡¡property£¿¡¡¡¡Their¡¡theory¡¡turns¡¡against¡¡themselves£»¡¡and¡¡strangles¡¡them¡£

Malthus¡¡thinks¡¡that¡¡farm¡­rent¡¡has¡¡its¡¡source¡¡in¡¡the¡¡power¡¡possessed¡¡by¡¡land¡¡of¡¡producing¡¡more¡¡than¡¡is¡¡necessary¡¡to¡¡supply¡¡the¡¡wants¡¡of¡¡the¡¡men¡¡who¡¡cultivate¡¡it¡£¡¡¡¡I¡¡would¡¡ask¡¡Malthus¡¡why¡¡successful¡¡labor¡¡should¡¡entitle¡¡the¡¡idle¡¡to¡¡a¡¡portion¡¡of¡¡the¡¡products£¿

But¡¡the¡¡worthy¡¡Malthus¡¡is¡¡mistaken¡¡in¡¡regard¡¡to¡¡the¡¡fact¡£¡¡¡¡Yes£»¡¡land¡¡has¡¡the¡¡power¡¡of¡¡producing¡¡more¡¡than¡¡is¡¡needed¡¡by¡¡those¡¡who¡¡cultivate¡¡it£»¡¡if¡¡by¡¡CULTIVATORS¡¡is¡¡meant¡¡tenants¡¡only¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡tailor¡¡also¡¡makes¡¡more¡¡clothes¡¡than¡¡he¡¡wears£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡cabinet¡­¡¡maker¡¡more¡¡furniture¡¡than¡¡he¡¡uses¡£¡¡¡¡But£»¡¡since¡¡the¡¡various¡¡professions¡¡imply¡¡and¡¡sustain¡¡one¡¡another£»¡¡not¡¡only¡¡the¡¡farmer£»¡¡but¡¡the¡¡followers¡¡of¡¡all¡¡arts¡¡and¡¡tradeseven¡¡to¡¡the¡¡doctor¡¡and¡¡the¡¡school¡­teacherare£»¡¡and¡¡ought¡¡to¡¡be£»¡¡regarded¡¡as¡¡CULTIVATORS¡¡OF¡¡THE¡¡LAND¡£¡¡¡¡Malthus¡¡bases¡¡farm¡­rent¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡principle¡¡of¡¡commerce¡£¡¡¡¡Now£»¡¡the¡¡fundamental¡¡law¡¡of¡¡commerce¡¡being¡¡equivalence¡¡of¡¡the¡¡products¡¡exchanged£»¡¡any¡¡thing¡¡which¡¡destroys¡¡this¡¡equivalence¡¡violates¡¡the¡¡law¡£¡¡¡¡There¡¡is¡¡an¡¡error¡¡in¡¡the¡¡estimate¡¡which¡¡needs¡¡to¡¡be¡¡corrected¡£

Buchanana¡¡commentator¡¡on¡¡Smithregarded¡¡farm¡­rent¡¡as¡¡the¡¡result¡¡of¡¡a¡¡monopoly£»¡¡and¡¡maintained¡¡that¡¡labor¡¡alone¡¡is¡¡productive¡£¡¡¡¡Consequently£»¡¡he¡¡thought¡¡that£»¡¡without¡¡this¡¡monopoly£»¡¡products¡¡would¡¡rise¡¡in¡¡price£»¡¡and¡¡he¡¡found¡¡no¡¡basis¡¡for¡¡farm¡­rent¡¡save¡¡in¡¡the¡¡civil¡¡law¡£¡¡¡¡This¡¡opinion¡¡is¡¡a¡¡corollary¡¡of¡¡that¡¡which¡¡makes¡¡the¡¡civil¡¡law¡¡the¡¡basis¡¡of¡¡property¡£¡¡¡¡But¡¡why¡¡has¡¡the¡¡civil¡¡lawwhich¡¡ought¡¡to¡¡be¡¡the¡¡written¡¡expression¡¡of¡¡justiceauthorized¡¡this¡¡monopoly£¿¡¡¡¡Whoever¡¡says¡¡monopoly£»¡¡necessarily¡¡excludes¡¡justice¡£¡¡¡¡Now£»¡¡to¡¡say¡¡that¡¡farm¡­rent¡¡is¡¡a¡¡monopoly¡¡sanctioned¡¡by¡¡the¡¡law£»¡¡is¡¡to¡¡say¡¡that¡¡injustice¡¡is¡¡based¡¡on¡¡justice£»a¡¡contradiction¡¡in¡¡terms¡£

Say¡¡answers¡¡Buchanan£»¡¡that¡¡the¡¡proprietor¡¡is¡¡not¡¡a¡¡monopolist£»¡¡because¡¡a¡¡monopolist¡¡¡¨is¡¡one¡¡who¡¡does¡¡not¡¡increase¡¡the¡¡utility¡¡of¡¡the¡¡merchandise¡¡which¡¡passes¡¡through¡¡his¡¡hands¡£¡¨

How¡¡much¡¡does¡¡the¡¡proprietor¡¡increase¡¡the¡¡utility¡¡of¡¡his¡¡tenant's¡¡products£¿¡¡¡¡Has¡¡he¡¡ploughed£»¡¡sowed£»¡¡reaped£»¡¡mowed£»¡¡winnowed£»¡¡weeded£¿¡¡¡¡These¡¡are¡¡the¡¡processes¡¡by¡¡which¡¡the¡¡tenant¡¡and¡¡his¡¡employees¡¡increase¡¡the¡¡utility¡¡of¡¡the¡¡material¡¡which¡¡they¡¡consume¡¡for¡¡the¡¡purpose¡¡of¡¡reproduction¡£


¡¨The¡¡landed¡¡proprietor¡¡increases¡¡the¡¡utility¡¡of¡¡products¡¡by¡¡means¡¡of¡¡his¡¡implement£»¡¡the¡¡land¡£¡¡¡¡This¡¡implement¡¡receives¡¡in¡¡one¡¡state£»¡¡and¡¡returns¡¡in¡¡another¡¡the¡¡materials¡¡of¡¡which¡¡wheat¡¡is¡¡composed¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡action¡¡of¡¡the¡¡land¡¡is¡¡a¡¡chemical¡¡process£»¡¡which¡¡so¡¡modifies¡¡the¡¡material¡¡that¡¡it¡¡multiplies¡¡it¡¡by¡¡destroying¡¡it¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡soil¡¡is¡¡then¡¡a¡¡producer¡¡of¡¡utility£»¡¡and¡¡when¡¡it¡¡£§the¡¡soil£¿£§¡¡asks¡¡its¡¡pay¡¡in¡¡the¡¡form¡¡of¡¡profit£»¡¡or¡¡farm¡¡rent£»¡¡for¡¡its¡¡proprietor£»¡¡it¡¡at¡¡the¡¡same¡¡time¡¡gives¡¡something¡¡to¡¡the¡¡consumer¡¡in¡¡exchange¡¡for¡¡the¡¡amount¡¡which¡¡the¡¡consumer¡¡pays¡¡it¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡gives¡¡him¡¡a¡¡produced¡¡utility£»¡¡and¡¡it¡¡is¡¡the¡¡production¡¡of¡¡this¡¡utility¡¡which¡¡warrants¡¡us¡¡in¡¡calling¡¡land¡¡productive£»¡¡as¡¡well¡¡as¡¡labor¡£¡¨


Let¡¡us¡¡clear¡¡up¡¡this¡¡matter¡£

The¡¡blacksmith¡¡who¡¡manufactures¡¡for¡¡the¡¡farmer¡¡implements¡¡of¡¡husbandry£»¡¡the¡¡wheelwright¡¡who¡¡makes¡¡him¡¡a¡¡cart£»¡¡the¡¡mason¡¡who¡¡builds¡¡his¡¡barn£»¡¡the¡¡carpenter£»¡¡the¡¡basket¡­maker£»¡¡&c¡££»all¡¡of¡¡whom¡¡contribute¡¡to¡¡agricultural¡¡production¡¡by¡¡the¡¡tools¡¡which¡¡they¡¡provide£»are¡¡producers¡¡of¡¡utility£»¡¡consequently£»¡¡they¡¡are¡¡entitled¡¡to¡¡a¡¡part¡¡of¡¡the¡¡products¡£


¡¨Undoubtedly£»¡¨¡¡says¡¡Say£»¡¡¡¨but¡¡the¡¡land¡¡also¡¡is¡¡an¡¡implement¡¡whose¡¡service¡¡must¡¡be¡¡paid¡¡for£»¡¡then¡£¡¡¡£¡¡¡£¡¡¡£¡¨


I¡¡admit¡¡that¡¡the¡¡land¡¡is¡¡an¡¡implement£»¡¡but¡¡who¡¡made¡¡it£¿¡¡¡¡Did¡¡the¡¡proprietor£¿¡¡¡¡Did¡¡heby¡¡the¡¡efficacious¡¡virtue¡¡of¡¡the¡¡right¡¡of¡¡property£»¡¡by¡¡this¡¡MORAL¡¡QUALITY¡¡infused¡¡into¡¡the¡¡soilendow¡¡it¡¡with¡¡vigor¡¡and¡¡fertility£¿¡¡¡¡Exactly¡¡there¡¡lies¡¡the¡¡monopoly¡¡of¡¡the¡¡proprietor£»¡¡in¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡that£»¡¡though¡¡he¡¡d

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