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Everybody¡¡answers£»¡¡¡¨No£»¡¡the¡¡authority¡¡of¡¡man¡¡is¡¡only¡¡the¡¡authority¡¡of¡¡the¡¡law£»¡¡which¡¡ought¡¡to¡¡be¡¡justice¡¡and¡¡truth¡£¡¨¡¡¡¡The¡¡private¡¡will¡¡counts¡¡for¡¡nothing¡¡in¡¡government£»¡¡which¡¡consists£»¡¡first£»¡¡in¡¡discovering¡¡truth¡¡and¡¡justice¡¡in¡¡order¡¡to¡¡make¡¡the¡¡law£»¡¡and£»¡¡second£»¡¡in¡¡superintending¡¡the¡¡execution¡¡of¡¡this¡¡law¡£¡¡¡¡I¡¡do¡¡not¡¡now¡¡inquire¡¡whether¡¡our¡¡constitutional¡¡form¡¡of¡¡government¡¡satisfies¡¡these¡¡conditions£»¡¡whether£»¡¡for¡¡example£»¡¡the¡¡will¡¡of¡¡the¡¡ministry¡¡never¡¡influences¡¡the¡¡declaration¡¡and¡¡interpretation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡law£»¡¡or¡¡whether¡¡our¡¡deputies£»¡¡in¡¡their¡¡debates£»¡¡are¡¡more¡¡intent¡¡on¡¡conquering¡¡by¡¡argument¡¡than¡¡by¡¡force¡¡of¡¡numbers£º¡¡it¡¡is¡¡enough¡¡for¡¡me¡¡that¡¡my¡¡definition¡¡of¡¡a¡¡good¡¡government¡¡is¡¡allowed¡¡to¡¡be¡¡correct¡£¡¡¡¡This¡¡idea¡¡is¡¡exact¡£¡¡¡¡Yet¡¡we¡¡see¡¡that¡¡nothing¡¡seems¡¡more¡¡just¡¡to¡¡the¡¡Oriental¡¡nations¡¡than¡¡the¡¡despotism¡¡of¡¡their¡¡sovereigns£»¡¡that£»¡¡with¡¡the¡¡ancients¡¡and¡¡in¡¡the¡¡opinion¡¡of¡¡the¡¡philosophers¡¡themselves£»¡¡slavery¡¡was¡¡just£»¡¡that¡¡in¡¡the¡¡middle¡¡ages¡¡the¡¡nobles£»¡¡the¡¡priests£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡bishops¡¡felt¡¡justified¡¡in¡¡holding¡¡slaves£»¡¡that¡¡Louis¡¡XIV¡£¡¡thought¡¡that¡¡he¡¡was¡¡right¡¡when¡¡he¡¡said£»¡¡¡¨The¡¡State£¡¡¡¡¡I¡¡am¡¡the¡¡State£»¡¨¡¡and¡¡that¡¡Napoleon¡¡deemed¡¡it¡¡a¡¡crime¡¡for¡¡the¡¡State¡¡to¡¡oppose¡¡his¡¡will¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡idea¡¡of¡¡justice£»¡¡then£»¡¡applied¡¡to¡¡sovereignty¡¡and¡¡government£»¡¡has¡¡not¡¡always¡¡been¡¡what¡¡it¡¡is¡¡to¡­day£»¡¡it¡¡has¡¡gone¡¡on¡¡developing¡¡and¡¡shaping¡¡itself¡¡by¡¡degrees£»¡¡until¡¡it¡¡has¡¡arrived¡¡at¡¡its¡¡present¡¡state¡£¡¡¡¡But¡¡has

it¡¡reached¡¡its¡¡last¡¡phase£¿¡¡¡¡I¡¡think¡¡not£º¡¡only£»¡¡as¡¡the¡¡last¡¡obstacle¡¡to¡¡be¡¡overcome¡¡arises¡¡from¡¡the¡¡institution¡¡of¡¡property¡¡which¡¡we¡¡have¡¡kept¡¡intact£»¡¡in¡¡order¡¡to¡¡finish¡¡the¡¡reform¡¡in¡¡government¡¡and¡¡consummate¡¡the¡¡revolution£»¡¡this¡¡very¡¡institution¡¡we¡¡must¡¡attack¡£

Is¡¡political¡¡and¡¡civil¡¡inequality¡¡just£¿

Some¡¡say¡¡yes£»¡¡others¡¡no¡£¡¡¡¡To¡¡the¡¡first¡¡I¡¡would¡¡reply¡¡that£»¡¡when¡¡the¡¡people¡¡abolished¡¡all¡¡privileges¡¡of¡¡birth¡¡and¡¡caste£»¡¡they¡¡did¡¡it£»¡¡in¡¡all¡¡probability£»¡¡because¡¡it¡¡was¡¡for¡¡their¡¡advantage£»¡¡why¡¡then¡¡do¡¡they¡¡favor¡¡the¡¡privileges¡¡of¡¡fortune¡¡more¡¡than¡¡those¡¡of¡¡rank¡¡and¡¡race£¿¡¡¡¡Because£»¡¡say¡¡they£»¡¡political¡¡inequality¡¡is¡¡a¡¡result¡¡of¡¡property£»¡¡and¡¡without¡¡property¡¡society¡¡is¡¡impossible£º¡¡thus¡¡the¡¡question¡¡just¡¡raised¡¡becomes¡¡a¡¡question¡¡of¡¡property¡£¡¡¡¡To¡¡the¡¡second¡¡I¡¡content¡¡myself¡¡with¡¡this¡¡remark£º¡¡¡¡If¡¡you¡¡wish¡¡to¡¡enjoy¡¡political¡¡equality£»¡¡abolish¡¡property£»¡¡otherwise£»¡¡why¡¡do¡¡you¡¡complain£¿

Is¡¡property¡¡just£¿

Everybody¡¡answers¡¡without¡¡hesitation£»¡¡¡¨Yes£»¡¡property¡¡is¡¡just¡£¡¨¡¡¡¡I¡¡say¡¡everybody£»¡¡for¡¡up¡¡to¡¡the¡¡present¡¡time¡¡no¡¡one¡¡who¡¡thoroughly¡¡understood¡¡the¡¡meaning¡¡of¡¡his¡¡words¡¡has¡¡answered¡¡no¡£¡¡¡¡For¡¡it¡¡is¡¡no¡¡easy¡¡thing¡¡to¡¡reply¡¡understandingly¡¡to¡¡such¡¡a¡¡question£»¡¡only¡¡time¡¡and¡¡experience¡¡can¡¡furnish¡¡an¡¡answer¡£¡¡¡¡Now£»¡¡this¡¡answer¡¡is¡¡given£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡for¡¡us¡¡to¡¡understand¡¡it¡£¡¡¡¡I¡¡undertake¡¡to¡¡prove¡¡it¡£

We¡¡are¡¡to¡¡proceed¡¡with¡¡the¡¡demonstration¡¡in¡¡the¡¡following¡¡order£º

I¡£¡¡We¡¡dispute¡¡not¡¡at¡¡all£»¡¡we¡¡refute¡¡nobody£»¡¡we¡¡deny¡¡nothing£»¡¡we¡¡accept¡¡as¡¡sound¡¡all¡¡the¡¡arguments¡¡alleged¡¡in¡¡favor¡¡of¡¡property£»¡¡and¡¡confine¡¡ourselves¡¡to¡¡a¡¡search¡¡for¡¡its¡¡principle£»¡¡in¡¡order¡¡that¡¡we¡¡may¡¡then¡¡ascertain¡¡whether¡¡this¡¡principle¡¡is¡¡faithfully¡¡expressed¡¡by¡¡property¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡fact£»¡¡property¡¡being¡¡defensible¡¡on¡¡no¡¡ground¡¡save¡¡that¡¡of¡¡justice£»¡¡the¡¡idea£»¡¡or¡¡at¡¡least¡¡the¡¡intention£»¡¡of¡¡justice¡¡must¡¡of¡¡necessity¡¡underlie¡¡all¡¡the¡¡arguments¡¡that¡¡have¡¡been¡¡made¡¡in¡¡defence¡¡of¡¡property£»¡¡and£»¡¡as¡¡on¡¡the¡¡other¡¡hand¡¡the¡¡right¡¡of¡¡property¡¡is¡¡only¡¡exercised¡¡over¡¡those¡¡things¡¡which¡¡can¡¡be¡¡appreciated¡¡by¡¡the¡¡senses£»¡¡justice£»¡¡secretly¡¡objectifying¡¡itself£»¡¡so¡¡to¡¡speak£»¡¡must¡¡take¡¡the¡¡shape¡¡of¡¡an¡¡algebraic¡¡formula¡£

By¡¡this¡¡method¡¡of¡¡investigation£»¡¡we¡¡soon¡¡see¡¡that¡¡every¡¡argument¡¡which¡¡has¡¡been¡¡invented¡¡in¡¡behalf¡¡of¡¡property£»¡¡WHATEVER¡¡IT¡¡MAY¡¡BE£»¡¡always¡¡and¡¡of¡¡necessity¡¡leads¡¡to¡¡equality£»¡¡that¡¡is£»¡¡to¡¡the¡¡negation¡¡of¡¡property¡£

The¡¡first¡¡part¡¡covers¡¡two¡¡chapters£º¡¡one¡¡treating¡¡of¡¡occupation£»¡¡the¡¡foundation¡¡of¡¡our¡¡right£»¡¡the¡¡other£»¡¡of¡¡labor¡¡and¡¡talent£»¡¡considered¡¡as¡¡causes¡¡of¡¡property¡¡and¡¡social¡¡inequality¡£

The¡¡first¡¡of¡¡these¡¡chapters¡¡will¡¡prove¡¡that¡¡the¡¡right¡¡of¡¡occupation¡¡OBSTRUCTS¡¡property£»¡¡the¡¡second¡¡that¡¡the¡¡right¡¡of¡¡labor¡¡DESTROYS¡¡it¡£

II¡£¡¡Property£»¡¡then£»¡¡being¡¡of¡¡necessity¡¡conceived¡¡as¡¡existing¡¡only¡¡in¡¡connection¡¡with¡¡equality£»¡¡it¡¡remains¡¡to¡¡find¡¡out¡¡why£»¡¡in¡¡spite¡¡of¡¡this¡¡necessity¡¡of¡¡logic£»¡¡equality¡¡does¡¡not¡¡exist¡£¡¡¡¡This¡¡new¡¡investigation¡¡also¡¡covers¡¡two¡¡chapters£º¡¡in¡¡the¡¡first£»¡¡considering¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡of¡¡property¡¡in¡¡itself£»¡¡we¡¡inquire¡¡whether¡¡this¡¡fact¡¡is¡¡real£»¡¡whether¡¡it¡¡exists£»¡¡whether¡¡it¡¡is¡¡possible£»¡¡for¡¡it¡¡would¡¡imply¡¡a¡¡contradiction£»¡¡were¡¡these¡¡two¡¡opposite¡¡forms¡¡of¡¡society£»¡¡equality¡¡and¡¡inequality£»¡¡both¡¡possible¡£¡¡¡¡Then¡¡we¡¡discover£»¡¡singularly¡¡enough£»¡¡that¡¡property¡¡may¡¡indeed¡¡manifest¡¡itself¡¡accidentally£»¡¡but¡¡that£»¡¡as¡¡an¡¡institution¡¡and¡¡principle£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡mathematically¡¡impossible¡£¡¡¡¡So¡¡that¡¡the¡¡axiom¡¡of¡¡the¡¡schoolab¡¡actu¡¡ad¡¡posse¡¡valet¡¡consecutio£º¡¡from¡¡the¡¡actual¡¡to¡¡the¡¡possible¡¡the¡¡inference¡¡is¡¡goodis¡¡given¡¡the¡¡lie¡¡as¡¡far¡¡as¡¡property¡¡is¡¡concerned¡£

Finally£»¡¡in¡¡the¡¡last¡¡chapter£»¡¡calling¡¡psychology¡¡to¡¡our¡¡aid£»¡¡and¡¡probing¡¡man's¡¡nature¡¡to¡¡the¡¡bottom£»¡¡we¡¡shall¡¡disclose¡¡the¡¡principle¡¡of¡¡JUSTICEits¡¡formula¡¡and¡¡character£»¡¡we¡¡shall¡¡state¡¡with¡¡precision¡¡the¡¡organic¡¡law¡¡of¡¡society£»¡¡we¡¡shall¡¡explain¡¡the¡¡origin¡¡of¡¡property£»¡¡the¡¡causes¡¡of¡¡its¡¡establishment£»¡¡its¡¡long¡¡life£»¡¡and¡¡its¡¡approaching¡¡death£»¡¡we¡¡shall¡¡definitively¡¡establish¡¡its¡¡identity¡¡with¡¡robbery¡£¡¡¡¡And£»¡¡after¡¡having¡¡shown¡¡that¡¡these¡¡three¡¡prejudicesTHE¡¡SOVEREIGNTY¡¡OF¡¡MAN£»¡¡THE¡¡INEQUALITY¡¡OF¡¡CONDITIONS£»¡¡AND¡¡PROPERTYare¡¡one¡¡and¡¡the¡¡same£»¡¡that¡¡they¡¡may¡¡be¡¡taken¡¡for¡¡each¡¡other£»¡¡and¡¡are¡¡reciprocally¡¡convertible£»we¡¡shall¡¡have¡¡no¡¡trouble¡¡in¡¡inferring¡¡therefrom£»¡¡by¡¡the¡¡principle¡¡of¡¡contradiction£»¡¡the¡¡basis¡¡of¡¡government¡¡and¡¡right¡£¡¡¡¡There¡¡our¡¡investigations¡¡will¡¡end£»¡¡reserving¡¡the¡¡right¡¡to¡¡continue¡¡them¡¡in¡¡future¡¡works¡£

The¡¡importance¡¡of¡¡the¡¡subject¡¡which¡¡engages¡¡our¡¡attention¡¡is¡¡recognized¡¡by¡¡all¡¡minds¡£


¡¨Property£»¡¨¡¡says¡¡M¡£¡¡Hennequin£»¡¡¡¨is¡¡the¡¡creative¡¡and¡¡conservative¡¡principle¡¡of¡¡civil¡¡society¡£¡¡¡¡Property¡¡is¡¡one¡¡of¡¡those¡¡basic¡¡institutions£»¡¡new¡¡theories¡¡concerning¡¡which¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡presented¡¡too¡¡soon£»¡¡for¡¡it¡¡must¡¡not¡¡be¡¡forgotten£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡publicist¡¡and¡¡statesman¡¡must¡¡know£»¡¡that¡¡on¡¡the¡¡answer¡¡to¡¡the¡¡question¡¡whether¡¡property¡¡is¡¡the¡¡principle¡¡or¡¡the¡¡result¡¡of¡¡social¡¡order£»¡¡whether¡¡it¡¡is¡¡to¡¡be¡¡considered¡¡as¡¡a¡¡cause¡¡or¡¡an¡¡effect£»¡¡depends¡¡all¡¡morality£»¡¡and£»¡¡consequently£»¡¡all¡¡the¡¡authority¡¡of¡¡human¡¡institutions¡£¡¨


These¡¡words¡¡are¡¡a¡¡challenge¡¡to¡¡all¡¡men¡¡of¡¡hope¡¡and¡¡faith£»¡¡but£»¡¡although¡¡the¡¡cause¡¡of¡¡equality¡¡is¡¡a¡¡noble¡¡one£»¡¡no¡¡one¡¡has¡¡yet¡¡picked¡¡up¡¡the¡¡gauntlet¡¡thrown¡¡down¡¡by¡¡the¡¡advocates¡¡of¡¡property£»¡¡no¡¡one¡¡has¡¡been¡¡courageous¡¡enough¡¡to¡¡enter¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡struggle¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡spurious¡¡learning¡¡of¡¡haughty¡¡jurisprudence£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡absurd¡¡aphorisms¡¡of¡¡a¡¡political¡¡economy¡¡controlled¡¡by¡¡property¡¡have¡¡puzzled¡¡the¡¡most¡¡generous¡¡minds£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡a¡¡sort¡¡of¡¡password¡¡among¡¡the¡¡most¡¡influential¡¡friends¡¡of¡¡liberty¡¡and¡¡the¡¡interests¡¡of¡¡the¡¡people¡¡that¡¡EQUALITY¡¡IS¡¡A¡¡CHIMERA£¡¡¡¡¡So¡¡many¡¡false¡¡theories¡¡and¡¡meaningless¡¡analogies¡¡influence¡¡minds¡¡otherwise¡¡keen£»¡¡but¡¡which¡¡are¡¡unconsciously¡¡controlled¡¡by¡¡popular¡¡prejudice¡£¡¡¡¡Equality¡¡advances¡¡every¡¡dayfit¡¡aequalitas¡£¡¡¡¡Soldiers¡¡of¡¡liberty£»¡¡shall¡¡we¡¡desert¡¡our¡¡flag¡¡in¡¡the¡¡hour¡¡of¡¡triumph£¿

A¡¡defender¡¡of¡¡equality£»¡¡I¡¡shall¡¡speak¡¡without¡¡bitterness¡¡and¡¡without¡¡anger£»¡¡with¡¡the¡¡independence¡¡becoming¡¡a¡¡philosopher£»¡¡with¡¡the¡¡courage¡¡and¡¡firmness¡¡of¡¡a¡¡free¡¡man¡£¡¡¡¡May¡¡I£»¡¡in¡¡this¡¡momentous¡¡struggle£»¡¡carry¡¡into¡¡all¡¡hearts¡¡the¡¡light¡¡with¡¡which¡¡I¡¡am¡¡filled£»¡¡and¡¡show£»¡¡by¡¡the¡¡success¡¡of¡¡my¡¡argument£»¡¡that¡¡equality¡¡failed¡¡to¡¡conquer¡¡by¡¡the¡¡sword¡¡only¡¡that¡¡it¡¡might¡¡conquer¡¡by¡¡the¡¡pen£¡



CHAPTER¡¡II¡£¡¡PROPERTY¡¡CONSIDERED¡¡AS¡¡A¡¡NATURAL¡¡RIGHT¡£OCCUPATION¡¡AND¡¡CIVIL¡¡LAW¡¡AS¡¡EFFICIENT¡¡BASES¡¡OF¡¡PROPERTY¡£¡¡DEFINITIONS¡£

The¡¡Roman¡¡law¡¡defined¡¡property¡¡as¡¡the¡¡right¡¡to¡¡use¡¡and¡¡abuse¡¡one's¡¡own¡¡within¡¡the¡¡limits¡¡of¡¡the¡¡lawjus¡¡utendi¡¡et¡¡abutendi¡¡re¡¡sua£»¡¡guatenus¡¡juris¡¡ratio¡¡patitur¡£¡¡¡¡A¡¡justification¡¡of¡¡the¡¡word¡¡ABUSE¡¡has¡¡been¡¡attempted£»¡¡on¡¡the¡¡ground¡¡that¡¡it¡¡signifies£»¡¡not¡¡senseless¡¡and¡¡immoral¡¡abuse£»¡¡but¡¡only¡¡absolute¡¡domain¡£¡¡¡¡Vain¡¡distinction£¡¡¡invented¡¡as¡¡an¡¡excuse¡¡for¡¡property£»¡¡and¡¡powerless¡¡against¡¡the¡¡frenzy¡¡of¡¡possession£»¡¡which¡¡it¡¡neither¡¡prevents¡¡nor¡¡represses¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡proprietor¡¡may£»¡¡if¡¡he¡¡chooses£»¡¡allow¡¡his¡¡crops¡¡to¡¡rot¡¡under¡¡foot£»¡¡sow¡¡his¡¡field¡¡with¡¡salt£»¡¡milk¡¡his¡¡cows¡¡on¡¡the¡¡sand£»¡¡change¡¡his¡¡vineyard¡¡into¡¡a¡¡desert£»¡¡and¡¡use¡¡his¡¡vegetable¡­¡¡garden¡¡as¡¡a¡¡park£º¡¡do¡¡these¡¡things¡¡constitute¡¡abuse£»¡¡or¡¡not£¿¡¡¡¡In¡¡the¡¡matter¡¡of¡¡property£»¡¡use¡¡and¡¡abuse¡¡are¡¡necessarily¡¡indistinguishable¡£

According¡¡to¡¡the¡¡Declaration¡¡of¡¡Rights£»¡¡published¡¡as¡¡a¡¡preface¡¡to¡¡the¡¡Constitution¡¡of¡¡'93£»¡¡property¡¡is¡¡¡¨the¡¡right¡¡to¡¡enjoy¡¡and¡¡dispose¡¡at¡¡will¡¡of¡¡one's¡¡goods£»¡¡one's¡¡income£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡fruit¡¡of¡¡one's¡¡labor¡¡and¡¡industry¡£¡¨

Code¡¡Napoleon£»¡¡article¡¡544£º¡¡¡¡¡¨Property¡¡is¡¡the¡¡right¡¡to¡¡enjoy¡¡and¡¡dispose¡¡of¡¡things¡¡in¡¡the¡¡most¡¡absolute¡¡manner£»¡¡provided¡¡we¡¡do¡¡not¡¡overstep¡¡the¡¡limits¡¡prescribed¡¡by¡¡the¡¡laws¡¡and¡¡regulations¡£¡¨

These¡¡two¡¡definitions¡¡do¡¡not¡¡differ¡¡from¡¡that¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Roman¡¡law£º¡¡all¡¡give¡¡the¡¡proprietor¡¡an¡¡absolute¡¡right¡¡over¡¡a¡¡thing£»¡¡and¡¡as¡¡for¡¡the¡¡restriction¡¡imposed¡¡by¡¡the¡¡code£»PROVIDED¡¡WE¡¡DO¡¡NOT¡¡OVERSTEP¡¡THE¡¡LIMITS¡¡PRESCRIBED¡¡BY¡¡THE¡¡LAWS¡¡AND¡¡REGULATIONS£»its¡¡object¡¡is¡¡not¡¡to¡¡limit¡¡property£»¡¡but¡¡to¡¡prevent¡¡the¡¡domain¡¡of¡¡one¡¡proprietor¡¡from¡¡interfering¡¡with¡¡that¡¡of¡¡another¡£¡¡¡¡That¡¡is¡¡a¡¡confirmation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡principle£»¡¡not¡¡a¡¡limitation¡¡of¡¡it¡£

There¡¡are¡¡different¡¡kinds¡¡of¡¡property£º¡¡¡¡1¡£¡¡Property¡¡pure¡¡and¡¡simple£»¡¡the¡¡domina

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