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 to make it a rule of conduct; and if they had been wise enough to respect the liberty of thought。  But having made God in his own image; man wished to appropriate him still farther; not satisfied with disfiguring the Almighty; he treated him as his patrimony; his goods; his possessions。  God; pictured in monstrous forms; became throughout the world the property of man and of the State。  Such was the origin of the corruption of morals by religion; and the source of pious feuds and holy wars。  Thank Heaven! we have learned to allow every one his own beliefs; we seek for moral laws outside the pale of religion。  Instead of legislating as to the nature and attributes of God; the dogmas of theology; and the destiny of our souls; we wisely wait for science to tell us what to reject and what to accept。  God; soul; religion;eternal objects of our unwearied thought and our most fatal aberrations; terrible problems whose solution; for ever attempted; for ever remains unaccomplished;concerning all these questions we may still be mistaken; but at least our error is harmless。  With liberty in religion; and the separation of the spiritual from the temporal power; the influence of religious ideas upon the progress of society is purely negative; no law; no political or civil institution being founded on religion。  Neglect of duties imposed by religion may increase the general corruption; but it is not the primary cause; it is only an auxiliary or result。  It is universally admitted; and especially in the matter which now engages our attention; that the cause of the inequality of conditions among menof pauperism; of universal misery; and of governmental embarrassmentscan no longer be traced to religion: we must go farther back; and dig still deeper。

But what is there in man older and deeper than the religious sentiment?

There is man himself; that is; volition and conscience; free…will and law; eternally antagonistic。  Man is at war with himself: why?

〃Man;〃 say the theologians; 〃transgressed in the beginning; our race is guilty of an ancient offence。  For this transgression humanity has fallen; error and ignorance have become its sustenance。  Read history; you will find universal proof of this necessity for evil in the permanent misery of nations。  Man suffers and always will suffer; his disease is hereditary and constitutional。  Use palliatives; employ emollients; there is no remedy。〃

Nor is this argument peculiar to the theologians; we find it expressed in equivalent language in the philosophical writings of the materialists; believers in infinite perfectibility。  Destutt de Tracy teaches formally that poverty; crime; and war are the inevitable conditions of our social state; necessary evils; against which it would be folly to revolt。  So; call it NECESSITY OF EVIL or ORIGINAL DEPRAVITY; it is at bottom the same philosophy。

〃The first man transgressed。〃  If the votaries of the Bible interpreted it faithfully; they would say: MAN ORIGINALLY TRANSGRESSED; that is; made a mistake; for TO TRANSGRESS; TO FAIL; TO MAKE A MISTAKE; all mean the same thing。

〃The consequences of Adam's transgression are inherited by the race; the first is ignorance。〃  Truly; the race; like the individual; is born ignorant; but; in regard to a multitude of questions; even in the moral and political spheres; this ignorance of the race has been dispelled: who says that it will not depart altogether?  Mankind makes continual progress toward truth; and light ever triumphs over darkness。  Our disease is not; then; absolutely incurable; and the theory of the theologians is worse than inadequate; it is ridiculous; since it is reducible to this tautology:  〃Man errs; because he errs。〃  While the true statement is this:  〃Man errs; because he learns。〃

Now; if man arrives at a knowledge of all that he needs to know; it is reasonable to believe that; ceasing to err; he will cease to suffer。

But if we question the doctors as to this law; said to be engraved upon the heart of man; we shall immediately see that they dispute about a matter of which they know nothing; that; concerning the most important questions; there are almost as many opinions as authors; that we find no two agreeing as to the best form of government; the principle of authority; and the nature of right; that all sail hap…hazard upon a shoreless and bottomless sea; abandoned to the guidance of their private opinions which they modestly take to be right reason。  And; in view of this medley of contradictory opinions; we say:  〃The object of our investigations is the law; the determination of the social principle。  Now; the politicians; that is; the social scientists; do not understand each other; then the error lies in themselves; and; as every error has a reality for its object; we must look in their books to find the truth which they have unconsciously deposited there。〃

Now; of what do the lawyers and the publicists treat?  Of jUSTICE; EQUITY; LIBERTY; NATURAL LAW; CIVIL LAWS; &c。  But what is justice?  What is its principle; its character; its formula?  To this question our doctors evidently have no reply; for otherwise their science; starting with a principle clear and well defined; would quit the region of probabilities; and all disputes would end。

What is justice?  The theologians answer:  〃All justice comes from God。〃  That is true; but we know no more than before。

The philosophers ought to be better informed: they have argued so much about justice and injustice!  Unhappily; an examination proves that their knowledge amounts to nothing; and that with themas with the savages whose every prayer to the sun is simply _O!  O!_it is a cry of admiration; love; and enthusiasm; but who does not know that the sun attaches little meaning to the interjection O!  That is exactly our position toward the philosophers in regard to justice。  Justice; they say; is a DAUGHTER OF HEAVEN; A LIGHT WHICH ILLUMINES EVERY MAN THAT COMES INTO THE WORLD; THE MOST BEAUTIFUL PREROGATIVE OF OUR NATURE; THAT WHICH DISTINGUISHES US FROM THE BEASTS AND LIKENS US TO GODand a thousand other similar things。  What; I ask; does this pious litany amount to?  To the prayer of the savages:  O!

All the most reasonable teachings of human wisdom concerning justice are summed up in that famous adage:  DO UNTO OTHERS THAT WHICH YOU WOULD THAT OTHERS SHOULD DO UNTO YOU; DO NOT UNTO OTHERS THAT WHICH YOU WOULD NOT THAT OTHERS SHOULD DO UNTO YOU。  But this rule of moral practice is unscientific: what have I a right to wish that others should do or not do to me?  It is of no use to tell me that my duty is equal to my right; unless I am told at the same time what my right is。

Let us try to arrive at something more precise and positive。

Justice is the central star which governs societies; the pole around which the political world revolves; the principle and the regulator of all transactions。  Nothing takes place between men save in the name of RIGHT; nothing without the invocation of justice。  Justice is not the work of the law: on the contrary; the law is only a declaration and application of JUSTICE in all circumstances where men are liable to come in contact。  If; then; the idea that we form of justice and right were ill…defined; if it were imperfect or even false; it is clear that all our legislative applications would be wrong; our institutions vicious; our politics erroneous: consequently there would be disorder and social chaos。

This hypothesis of the perversion of justice in our minds; and; as a necessary result; in our acts; becomes a demonstrated fact when it is shown that the opinions of men have not borne a constant relation to the notion of justice and its applications; that at different periods they have undergone modifications: in a word; that there has been progress in ideas。  Now; that is what history proves by the most overwhelming testimony。

Eighteen Hundred years ago; the world; under the rule of the Caesars; exhausted itself in slavery; superstition; and voluptuousness。  The peopleintoxicated and; as it were; stupefied by their long…continued orgieshad lost the very notion of right and duty: war and dissipation by turns swept them away; usury and the labor of machines (that is of slaves); by depriving them of the means of subsistence; hindered them from continuing the species。  Barbarism sprang up again; in a hideous form; from this mass of corruption; and spread like a devouring leprosy over the depopulated provinces。  The wise foresaw the downfall of the empire; but could devise no remedy。  What could they think indeed?  To save this old society it would have been necessary to change the objects of public esteem and veneration; and to abolish the rights affirmed by a justice purely secular; they said:  〃Rome has conquered through her politics and her gods; any change in theology and public opinion would be folly and sacrilege。  Rome; merciful toward conquered nations; though binding them in chains; spared their lives; slaves are the most fertile source of her wealth; freedom of the nations would be the negation of her rights and the ruin of her finances。  Rome; in fact; enveloped in the pleasures and gorged with the spoils of the universe; is kept alive by victory and government; her luxury and her ple

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