the evolution of modern medicine-第7节
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l from his birth。 Man was a part of nature and subject to its laws。 The thought could therefore arise that； if the conditions in the heavens were studied under which a man was born； that man's future could be determined in accord with the beliefs associated with the position of the planets rising or visible at the time of birth or； according to other views； at the time of conception。 These views take us back directly to the system of astrology developed by Babylonian baru priests。 The basis on which the modified Greek system rests is likewise the same that we have observed in Babyloniaa correspondence between heaven and earth； but with this important difference； that instead of the caprice of the gods we have the unalterable fate controlling the entire universethe movements of the heavens and the life of the individual alike〃 （Jastrow）。＇19＇
＇19＇ Ibid。； pp。 257…258。
From this time on until the Renaissance； like a shadow； astrology follows astronomy。 Regarded as two aspects of the same subject； the one； natural astrology； the equivalent of astronomy； was concerned with the study of the heavens； the other； judicial astrology； was concerned with the casting of horoscopes； and reading in the stars the fate of the individual。
As I mentioned； Greek science in its palmy days seems to have been very free from the bad features of astrology。 Gilbert Murray remarks that 〃astrology fell upon the Hellenistic mind as a new disease falls upon some remote island people。〃 But in the Greek conquest of the Roman mind； astrology took a prominent role。 It came to Rome as part of the great Hellenizing movement； and the strength of its growth may be gauged from the edicts issued against astrologers as early as the middle of the second century B。C。 In his introduction to his recent edition of Book II of the Astronomicon of Manilius； Garrod traces the growth of the cult； which under the Empire had an extraordinary vogue。 〃Though these ＇heavenly＇ signs be far removed from us； yet does he ＇the god＇ so make their influences felt； that they give to nations their life and their fate and to each man his own character。〃＇20＇ Oracles were sought on all occasions； from the planting of a tree to the mating of a horse； and the doctrine of the stars influenced deeply all phases of popular thought and religion。 The professional astrologers； as Pliny＇21＇ says； were Chaldeans； Egyptians and Greeks。 The Etruscans； too； the professional diviners of Rome； cultivated the science。 Many of these 〃Isiaci conjectores〃 and 〃astrologi de circo〃 were worthless charlatans； but on the whole the science seems to have attracted the attention of thoughtful men of the period。 Garrod quotes the following remarkable passage from Tacitus： 〃My judgment wavers；〃 he says； 〃I dare not say whether it be fate and necessity immutable which governs the changing course of human affairsor just chance。 Among the wisest of the ancients； as well as among their apes； you will find a conflict of opinion。 Many hold fixedly the idea that our beginning and our endthat man himselfis nothing to the Gods at all。 The wicked are in prosperity and the good meet tribulation。 Others believe that Fate and the facts of this world work together。 But this connection they trace not to planetary influences but to a concatenation of natural causes。 We choose our life that is free： but the choice once made； what awaits us is fixed and ordered。 Good and evil are different from the vulgar opinion of them。 Often those who seem to battle with adversity are to be accounted blessed； but the many； even in their prosperity； are miserable。 It needs only to bear misfortune bravely； while the fool perishes in his wealth。 Outside these rival schools stands the man in the street。 No one will take from him his conviction that at our birth are fixed for us the things that shall be。 If some things fall out differently from what was foretold； that is due to the deceit of men that speak what they know not： calling into contempt a science to which past and present alike bear a glorious testimony〃 （Ann。 vi； 22）。
＇20＇ Manili Astronomicon Liber II； ed。 H。 W。 Garrod； Oxford； 1911； p。 lxix； and II； ll。 84…86。
＇21＇ Pliny： Natural History； Bk。 XVIII； Chap。 XXV； Sect。 57。
Cato waged war on the Greek physicians and forbade 〃his uilicus all resort to haruspicem； augurem； hariolum Chaldaeum；〃 but in vain； so widespread became the belief that the great philosopher； Panaetius （who died about 111 B。C。）； and two of his friends alone among the stoics； rejected the claims of astrology as a science （Garrod）。 So closely related was the subject of mathematics that it； too； fell into disfavor； and in the Theodosian code sentence of death was passed upon mathematicians。 Long into the Middle Ages； the same unholy alliance with astrology and divination caused mathematics to be regarded with suspicion； and even Abelard calls it a nefarious study。
The third important feature in Babylonian medicine is the evidence afforded by the famous Hammurabi Code （circa 2000 B。C。） a body of laws； civil and religious； many of which relate to the medical profession。 This extraordinary document is a black diorite block 8 feet high； once containing 21 columns on the obverse； 16 and 28 columns on the reverse； with 2540 lines of writing of which now 1114 remain； and surmounted by the figure of the king receiving the law from the Sun…god。 Copies of this were set up in Babylon 〃that anyone oppressed or injured； who had a tale of woe to tell； might come and stand before his image； that of a king of righteousness； and there read the priceless orders of the King； and from the written monument solve his problem〃 （Jastrow）。 From the enactments of the code we gather that the medical profession must have been in a highly organized state； for not only was practice regulated in detail； but a scale of fees was laid down； and penalties exacted for malpraxis。 Operations were performed； and the veterinary art was recognized。 An interesting feature； from which it is lucky that we have in these days escaped； is the application of the 〃lex talionis〃 an eye for an eye； bone for a bone； and tooth for a tooth； which is a striking feature of the code。
Some of the laws of the code may be quoted：
Paragraph 215。 If a doctor has treated a gentleman for a severe wound with a bronze lances and has cured the man； or has opened an abscess of the eye for a gentleman with the bronze lances and has cured the eye of the gentleman； he shall take ten shekels of silver。
218。 If the doctor has treated a gentleman for a severe wound with a lances of bronze and has caused the gentleman to die； or has opened an abscess of the eye for a gentleman and has caused the loss of the gentleman's eye； one shall cut off his hands。
219。 If a doctor has treated the severe wound of a slave of a poor man with a bronze lances and has caused his death； he shall render slave for slave。
220。 If he has opened his abscess with a bronze lances and has made him lose his eye； he shall pay money； half his price。
221。 If a doctor has cured the shattered limb of a gentleman； or has cured the diseased bowel； the patient shall give five shekels of silver to the doctor。
224。 If a cow doctor or a sheep doctor has treated a cow or a sheep for a severe wound and cured it； the owner of the cow or sheep shall give one…sixth of a shekel of silver to the doctor as his fee。＇22＇
＇22＇ The Oldest Code of Laws in the World； translated by C。 H。 W。 Johns； Edinburgh； 1903。
HEBREW MEDICINE
THE medicine of the Old Testament betrays both Egyptian and Babylonian influences； the social hygiene is a reflex of regulations the origin of which may be traced in the Pyramid Texts and in the papyri。 The regulations in the Pentateuch codes revert in part to primitive times； in part represent advanced views of hygiene。 There are doubts if the Pentateuch code really goes back to the days of Moses； but certainly someone 〃learned in the wisdom of the Egyptians〃 drew it up。 As Neuburger briefly summarizes：
〃The commands concern prophylaxis and suppression of epidemics； suppression of venereal disease and prostitution； care of the skin； baths； food； housing and clothing； regulation of labour； sexual life； discipline of the people； etc。 Many of these commands； such as Sabbath rest； circumcision； laws concerning food （interdiction of blood and pork）； measures concerning menstruating and lying…in women and those suffering from gonorrhoea； isolation of lepers； and hygiene of the camp； are； in view of the conditions of the climate； surprisingly rational。〃＇23＇
＇23＇ Neuburger： History of Medicine； Oxford University Press； 1910； Vol。 I； p。 38。
Divination； not very widely practiced； was borrowed； no doubt； from Babylonia。 Joseph's cup was used for the purpose； and in Numbers； the elders of Balak went to Balaam with the rewards of divination in their hands。 The belief in enchantments and witchcraft was universal； and the strong enactments against witches in the Old Testament made a belief in them almost imperative until more rational beliefs came into vogue in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries。
Whatever view we may take of it； the medicine of the New Testament is full of interest。 Divination is only re
