the evolution of modern medicine-第6节

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element　in　the　animal；　and　the　god　in　accepting　the　animal；　which　is　involved　in　the　act　of　bringing　it　as　an　offering　to　a　god；　identifies　himself　with　the　animalbecomes；　as　it　were；　one　with　it。　　The　life　in　the　animal　is　a　reflection　of　his　own　life；　and　since　the　fate　of　men　rests　with　the　gods；　if　one　can　succeed　in　entering　into　the　mind　of　a　god；　and　thus　ascertain　what　he　purposes　to　do；　the　key　for　the　solution　of　the　problem　as　to　what　the　future　has　in　store　will　have　been　found。　　The　liver　being　the　centre　of　vitalitythe　seat　of　the　mind；　therefore；　as　well　as　of　the　emotionsit　becomes　in　the　case　of　the　sacrificial　animal；　either　directly　identical　with　the　mind　of　the　god　who　accepts　the　animal；　or；　at　all　events；　a　mirror　in　which　the　god's　mind　is　reflected；　or；　to　use　another　figure；　a　watch　regulated　to　be　in　sympathetic　and　perfect　accord　with　a　second　watch。　If；　therefore；　one　can　read　the　liver　of　the　sacrificial　animal；　one　enters；　as　it　were；　into　the　workshop　of　the　divine　will。〃＇15＇

＇15＇　Morris　Jastrow：　loc。　cit。；　p。　122。


Hepatoscopy　thus　became；　among　the　Babylonians；　of　extraordinary　complexity；　and　the　organ　of　the　sheep　was　studied　and　figured　as　early　as　3000　B。C。　In　the　divination　rites；　the　lobes；　the　gall…bladder；　the　appendages　of　the　upper　lobe　and　the　markings　were　all　inspected　with　unusual　care。　The　earliest　known　anatomical　model；　which　is　here　shown；　is　the　clay　model　of　a　sheep's　liver　with　the　divination　text　dating　from　about　2000　B。C。；　from　which　Jastrow　has　worked　out　the　modern　anatomical　equivalents　of　the　Babylonian　terms。　To　reach　a　decision　on　any　point；　the　phenomena　of　the　inspection　of　the　liver　were　carefully　recorded；　and　the　interpretations　rested　on　a　more　or　less　natural　and　original　association　of　ideas。　　Thus；　if　the　gall…bladder　were　swollen　on　the　right　side；　it　pointed　to　an　increase　in　the　strength　of　the　King's　army；　and　was　favorable；　if　on　the　left　side；　it　indicated　rather　success　of　the　enemy；　and　was　unfavorable。　If　the　bile　duct　was　long；　it　pointed　to　a　long　life。　Gallstones　are　not　infrequently　mentioned　in　the　divination　texts　and　might　be　favorable；　or　unfavorable。　　Various　interpretations　were　gathered　by　the　scribes　in　the　reference　note…books　which　serve　as　guides　for　the　interpretation　of　the　omens　and　for　text…books　of　instructions　in　the　temple　schools　（Jastrow）。

The　art　of　divination　spread　widely　among　the　neighboring　nations。　There　are　many　references　in　the　Bible　to　the　practice。　The　elders　of　Moab　and　Midian　came　to　Balaam　〃with　the　rewards　of　divination　in　their　hand〃　（Numbers　xxii；　7）。　Joseph's　cup　of　divination　was　found　in　Benjamin's　sack　（Genesis　xliv；　5；　12）；　and　in　Ezekiel　（xxi；　21）　the　King　of　Babylon　stood　at　the　parting　of　the　way　and　looked　in　the　liver。　　Hepatoscopy　was　also　practiced　by　the　Etruscans；　and　from　them　it　passed　to　the　Greeks　and　the　Romans；　among　whom　it　degenerated　into　a　more　or　less　meaningless　form。　But　Jastrow　states　that　in　Babylonia　and　Assyria；　where　for　several　thousand　years　the　liver　was　consistently　employed　as　the　sole　organ　of　divination；　there　are　no　traces　of　the　rite　having　fallen　into　decay；　or　having　been　abused　by　the　priests。

In　Roman　times；　Philostratus　gives　an　account　of　the　trial　of　Apollonius　of　Tyana；＇16＇　accused　of　human　hepatoscopy　by　sacrificing　a　boy　in　the　practice　of　magic　arts　against　the　Emperor。　　〃The　liver；　which　the　experts　say　is　the　very　tripod　of　their　art；　does　not　consist　of　pure　blood；　for　the　heart　retains　all　the　uncontaminated　blood；　and　irrigates　the　whole　body　with　it　by　the　conduits　of　the　arteries；　whereas　the　gall；　which　is　situated　next　the　liver；　is　stimulated　by　anger　and　depressed　by　fear　into　the　hollows　of　the　liver。〃

We　have　seen　how　early　and　how　widespread　was　the　belief　in　amulets　and　charms　against　the　occult　powers　of　darkness。　One　that　has　persisted　with　extraordinary　tenacity　is　the　belief　in　the　Evil　Eye　the　power　of　certain　individuals　to　injure　with　a　look。　Of　general　belief　in　the　older　civilizations；　and　referred　to　in　several　places　in　the　Bible；　it　passed　to　Greece　and　Rome；　and　today　is　still　held　fervently　in　many　parts　of　Europe。　　The　sign　of　〃le　corna；〃the　first　and　fourth　fingers　extended；　the　others　turned　down　and　the　thumb　closed　over　them；still　used　against　the　Evil　Eye　in　Italy；　was　a　mystic　sign　used　by　the　Romans　in　the　festival　of　Lemuralia。　　And　we　meet　with　the　belief　also　in　this　country。　A　child　with　hemiplegia；　at　the　Infirmary　for　Diseases　of　the　Nervous　System；　Philadelphia；　from　the　central　part　of　Pennsylvania；　was　believed　by　its　parents　to　have　had　the　Evil　Eye　cast　upon　it。

The　second　contribution　of　Babylonia　and　Assyria　to　medicine　one　that　affected　mankind　profoundlyrelates　to　the　supposed　influence　of　the　heavenly　bodies　upon　man's　welfare。　　A　belief　that　the　stars　in　their　courses　fought　for　or　against　him　arose　early　in　their　civilizations；　and　directly　out　of　their　studies　on　astrology　and　mathematics。　The　Macrocosm；　the　heavens　that　〃declare　the　glory　of　God；〃　reflect；　as　in　a　mirror；　the　Microcosm；　the　daily　life　of　man　on　earth。　The　first　step　was　the　identification　of　the　sun；　moon　and　stars　with　the　gods　of　the　pantheon。　　Assyrian　astronomical　observations　show　an　extraordinary　development　of　practical　knowledge。　　The　movements　of　the　sun　and　moon　and　of　the　planets　were　studied；　the　Assyrians　knew　the　precession　of　the　equinoxes　and　many　of　the　fundamental　laws　of　astronomy；　and　the　modern　nomenclature　dates　from　their　findings。　In　their　days　the　signs　of　the　zodiac　corresponded　practically　with　the　twelve　constellations　whose　names　they　still　bear；　each　division　being　represented　by　the　symbol　of　some　god；　as　the　Scorpion；　the　Ram；　the　Twins；　etc。　〃Changes　in　the　heavens　。　。　。　portended　changes　on　earth。　The　Biblical　expression　'hosts　of　heaven'　for　the　starry　universe　admirably　reflects　the　conception　held　by　the　Babylonian　astrologers。　Moon；　planets　and　stars　constituted　an　army　in　constant　activity；　executing　military　manoeuvres　which　were　the　result　of　deliberation　and　which　had　in　view　a　fixed　purpose。　　It　was　the　function　of　the　priest　the　barqu；　or　'inspector；'　as　the　astrologer　as　well　as　the　'inspector'　of　the　liver　was　calledto　discover　this　purpose。　　In　order　to　do　so；　a　system　of　interpretation　was　evolved；　less　logical　and　less　elaborate　than　the　system　of　hepatoscopy；　which　was　analyzed　in　the　preceding　chapter；　but　nevertheless　meriting　attention　both　as　an　example　of　the　pathetic　yearning　of　men　to　peer　into　the　minds　of　the　gods；　and　of　the　influence　that　Babylonian…Assyrian　astrology　exerted　throughout　the　ancient　world〃　（Jastrow）。＇17＇

＇16＇　Philostratus：　　Apollonius　of　Tyana；　Bk。　VIII；　Chap。　　VII；　Phillimore's　transl。；　Oxford；　1912；　II；　233。　　See；　also；　Justin：　Apologies；　edited　by　Louis　Pautigny；　Paris；　1904；　p。　39。

＇17＇　M。　Jastrow：　　Aspects　of　Religious　Belief　and　Practice　in　Babylonia　and　Assyria；　New　York；　1911；　p。　210。


With　the　rationalizing　influence　of　the　Persians　the　hold　of　astrology　weakened；　and　according　to　Jastrow　it　was　this；　in　combination　with　Hebrew　and　Greek　modes　of　thought；　that　led　the　priests　in　the　three　centuries　following　the　Persian　occupation；　to　exchange　their　profession　of　diviners　for　that　of　astronomers；　and　this；　he　says；　marks　the　beginning　of　the　conflict　between　religion　and　science。　At　first　an　expression　of　primitive　〃science；〃　astrology　became　a　superstition；　from　which　the　human　mind　has　not　yet　escaped。　In　contrast　to　divination；　astrology　does　not　seem　to　have　made　much　impression　on　the　Hebrews　and　definite　references　in　the　Bible　are　scanty。　　From　Babylonia　it　passed　to　Greece　（without；　however；　exerting　any　particular　influence　upon　Greek　medicine）。　Our　own　language　is　rich　in　words　of　astral　significance　derived　from　the　Greek；　e。g。；　disaster。

The　introduction　of　astrology　into　Europe　has　a　passing　interest。　Apparently　the　Greeks　had　made　important　advances　in　astronomy　before　coming　in　contact　with　the　Babylonians；who；　in　all　probability；　received　from　the　former　a　scientific　conception　of　the　universe。　〃In　Babylonia　and　Assyria　we　have　astrology　first　and　astronomy　afterwards；　in　Greece　we　have　the　sequence　reversedastronomy　first　and　astrology　afterwards〃　（Jastrow）。＇18＇

＇18＇　M。　Jastrow：　　Aspects　of　Religious　Belief　and　Practice　in　Babylonia　and　Assyria；　New　York；　1911；　p。　256。


It　is　surprising　to　learn　that；　previous　to　their　contact　with　the　Greeks；　astrology　as　relating　to　the　individual　that　is　to　say；　the　reading　of　the　stars　to　determine　the　conditions　under　which　the　individual　was　bornhad　no　place　in　the　cult　of　the　Babylonians　and　Assyrians。　　The　individualistic　spirit　led　the　Greek　to　make　his　gods　take　note　of　every　action　in　his　life；　and　his　preordained　fate　might　be　read　in　the　stars。〃A　connecting　link　between　the　individual　and　the　movements　in　the　heavens　was　found　in　an　element　which　they　shared　in　common。　　Both　man　and　stars　moved　in　obedience　to　forces　from　which　there　was　no　escape。　An　inexorable　law　controlling　the　planets　corresponded　to　an　equally　inexorable　fate　ordained　for　every　individual　from　his　birth。　Man　was　a　part　of　nature　and　subject　to　its　laws。　　The　thought　could　therefore　ari