history of philosophy-第35节

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any　middle　term；　but　directly；　almost　in　the　same　manner　as　by　the　sense。　For　the　sense　in　its
primary　objects　at　once　apprehends　the　appearance　of　the　object；　and　consents　to　the　truth
thereof。”　（7）　The　syllogism　is　altogether　rejected　by　Bacon。　As　a　matter　of　fact；　this　Aristotelian
deduction　is　not　a　knowledge　through　itself　in　accordance　with　its　content：　it　requires　a　foreign
universal　as　its　basis；　and　for　that　reason　its　movement　is　in　its　form　contingent。　The　content　is　not
in　unity　with　the　form；　and　this　form　is　hence　in　itself　contingent；　because　it；　considered　on　its　own
account；　is　the　movement　onwards　in　a　foreign　content。　The　major　premise　is　the　content　existent
for　itself；　the　minor　is　likewise　the　content　not　through　itself；　for　it　goes　back　into　the　infinite；　i。e。；　it
has　not　the　form　in　itself；　the　form　is　not　the　content。　The　opposite　may　always　be　made　out
equally　well　through　the　syllogism；　for　it　is　a　matter　of　indifference　to　this　form　what　content　is
made　its　basis。　“Dialectic　does　not　assist　in　the　discovery　of　the　arts；　many　arts　were　found　out　by
chance。”　（8）

It　was　not　against　this　syllogism　generally；　i。e。；　not　against　the　Notion　of　it　（for　Bacon　did　not
possess　this）；　but　against　deduction　as　it　was　put　into　operation；　as　it　was　to　the　scholastics　—　the
deduction　which　took　an　assumed　content　as　its　basis　—　that　Bacon　declaimed；　urging　that　the
content　of　experience　should　be　made　the　basis；　and　the　method　of　induction　pursued。　He
demanded　that　observations　on　nature　and　experiments　should　be　made　fundamental；　and　pointed
out　the　objects　whose　investigation　was　of　special　importance　in　the　interests　of　human　society；
and　so　on。　From　this　there　then　resulted　the　establishment　of　conclusions　through　induction　and
analogy。　（9）　In　fact　it　was　only　to　an　alteration　in　the　content　that；　without　being　aware　of　it；　Bacon
was　impelled。　For　though　he　rejected　the　syllogism　and　only　permitted　conclusions　to　be　reached
through　induction；　he　unconsciously　himself　drew　deductions；　likewise　all　these　champions　of
empiricism；　who　followed　after　him；　and　who　put　into　practice　what　he　demanded；　and　thought
they　could　by　observations；　experiments　and　experiences；　keep　the　matter　in　question　pure；　could
neither　so　do　without　drawing　deductions；　nor　without　introducing　conceptions；　and　they　drew
their　deductions　and　formed　their　notions　and　conceptions　all　the　more　freely　because　they　thought
that　they　had　nothing　to　do　with　conceptions　at　all；　nor　did　they　go　forth　from　deduction　to
immanent；　true　knowledge。　Thus　when　Bacon　set　up　induction　in　opposition　to　the　syllogism；　this
opposition　is　formal；　each　induction　is　also　a　deduction；　which　fact　was　known　even　to　Aristotle。
For　if　a　universal　is　deduced　from　a　number　of　things；　the　first　proposition　reads；　“These　bodies
have　these　qualities；”　the　second；　“All　these　bodies　belong　to　one　class；”　and　thus；　in　the　third
place；　this　class　has　these　qualities。　That　is　a　perfect　syllogism。　Induction　always　signifies　that
observations　are　instituted；　experiments　made；　experience　regarded；　and　from　this　the　universal
determination　is　derived。

We　have　already　called　to　mind　how　important　it　is　to　lead　on　to　the　content　as　the　content　of
actuality；　of　the　present；　for　the　rational　must　have　objective　truth。　The　reconciliation　of　spirit　with
the　world；　the　glorification　of　nature　and　of　all　actuality；　must　not　be　a　Beyond；　a　Futurity；　but　must
be　accomplished　now　and　here。　It　is　this　moment　of　the　now　and　here　which　thereby　comes　into
self…consciousness。　But　those　who　make　experiments　and　observations；　do　not　realize　what　they
are　really　doing；　for　the　sole　interest　taken　by　them　in　things；　is　owing　to　the　inward　and
unconscious　certainty　which　reason　has　of　finding　itself　in　actuality；　and　observations　and
experiments；　if　entered　upon　in　a　right　way；　result　in　showing　that　the　Notion　is　the　only　objective
existence。　The　sensuous　individual　eludes　the　experiments　even　while　it　is　being　operated　upon；
and　becomes　a　universal；　the　best　known　example　of　this　is　to　be　found　in　positive　and　negative
electricity　in　so　far　as　it　is　positive　and　negative。　There　is　another　shortcoming　of　a　formal　nature；
and　one　of　which　all　empiricists　partake；　—　that　is　that　they　believe　themselves　to　be　keeping　to
experience　alone；　it　is　to　them　an　unknown　fact　that　in　receiving　these　perceptions　they　are
indulging　in　metaphysics。　Man　does　not　stop　short　at　the　individual；　nor　can　he　do　so。　He　seeks
the　universal；　but　thoughts；　even　if　not　Notions　likewise；　are　what　constitute　the　same。　The　most
remarkable　thought…form　is　that　of　force；　we　thus　speak　of　the　force　of　electricity；　of　magnetism；
of　gravity。　Force；　however；　is　a　universal　and　not　a　perceptible；　quite　uncritically　and
unconsciously　the　empiricists　thus　permit　of　determinations　such　as　these。

3。　Bacon　finally　gives　the　objects　with　which　Philosophy　mainly　has　to　deal。　These　objects　contrast
much　with　that　which　we　derive　from　perception　and　experience。　“In　the　summary　which　Bacon
gives　of　what　he　conceives　ought　to　be　the　objects　of　philosophical　inquiry；　are　the　following；　and
we　select　those　which　he　principally　dwells　upon　in　his　works：　‘The　prolongation　of　life；　the
restitution　of　youth　in　some　degree；　the　retardation　of　old　age；　and　the　altering　of　statures；　the
altering　of　features；　versions　of　bodies　into　other　bodies；　making　of　new　species；　impression　of　the
air　and　raising　tempests；　greater　pleasures　of　the　senses；　&c。’”　He　likewise　deals　with　objects
such　as　these；　and　he　seeks　to　direct　attention　upon　whether　in　their　regard　the　means　could　not　be
found　to　carry　out　their　ends；　in　such　powers　we　should　be　able　to　make　some　progress。　“He
complains　that　such　investigations　have　been　neglected　by　those　whom　be　designates　ignavi
regionum　exploratores。　In　his　Natural　History　he　gives　formal　receipts　for　making　gold；　and
performing　many　wonders。”　（10）　Bacon　thus　does　not　by　any　means　take　the　intelligent
standpoint　of　an　investigation　of　nature；　being　still　involved　in　the　grossest　superstition；　false　magic；
&c。　This　we　find　to　be　on　the　whole　propounded　in　an　intelligent　way；　and　Bacon　thus　remains
within　the　conceptions　of　his　time。　“The　conversion　of　silver；　quicksilver；　or　any　other　metal　into
gold　is　a　thing　difficult　to　believe；　yet　it　is　far　more　probable　that　a　man　who　knows　clearly　the
natures　of　weight；　of　the　colour　of　yellow；　of　malleability；　and　extension；　of　volatility　and　fixedness；
and　who　has　also　made　diligent　search　into　the　first　seeds　and　menstruums　of　minerals；　may　at　last
by　much　and　sagacious　endeavour　produce　gold；　than　that　a　few　grains　of　an　elixir　may　so　do。　。　。　。
So　again　a　man　who　knows　well　the　nature　of　rarefaction；　of　assimilation；　and　of　alimentation；　shall
by　diets；　bathings；　and　the　like　prolong　life；　or　in　some　degree　renew　the　vigour　of　youth。”　（11）
These　assertions　are　thus　not　as　crude　as　they　at　first　appear。　In　dealing　with　Medicine　Bacon
speaks　amongst　other　things　of　maceration　（Malacissatio　per　exterius）　（12）　and　so　forth。

Bacon　emphasizes　what　has　reference　to　the　formal　aspect　of　investigation。　For　he　says；　“Natural
philosophy　is　divided　into　two　parts；　the　first　consists　in　the　investigation　of　causes；　the　second　in
the　production　of　effects；　the　causes　to　be　investigated　are　either　final　or　formal　causes；　or　else
material　or　efficient　causes。　The　former　constitutes　metaphysics；　the　latter　physics。　This　last　Bacon
looks　upon　as　a　branch　of　philosophy　very　inferior　in　point　of　dignity　and　importance　to　the　other
and　accordingly　to　ascertain　the　most　probable　means　of　improving　our　knowledge　of　metaphysics
is　the　great　object　of　his　Organon。〃　（13）　He　himself　says：　“It　is　a　correct　position　that　‘true
knowledge　is　knowledge　by　causes。　And　causes；　again；　are　not　improperly；　distributed　into　four
kind：　the　material；　the　formal；　the　efficient；　and　the　final。’”　（14）　（Vol。　I。　p。　174；　Vol。　II。　p。　138。）

But　in　this　connection　an　important　point　is　that　Bacon　has　turned　against　the　teleological
investigation　of　nature；　against　the　investigation　into　final　causes。　“The　investigation　of　final　causes
is　useless；　they　corrupt　rather　than　advance　the　sciences　except　such　as　have　to　do　with　human
action。”　（15）　To　Bacon　the　important　matter　is　to　investigate　by　the　study　of　caus？　efficientes。
To　the　consideration　of　final　causes　such　assertions　as　these　belong：　“That　the　hairs　of　the　eyelids
are　for　a　protection　to　the　eyes；　that　the　thick　skins　and　hides　of　living　creatures　are　to　defend
them　from　heat　and　cold；　that　the　trees　have　leaves　so　that　the　fruit　may　not　suffer　from　sun　and
wind”　（16）：　the　hair　is　on　the　head　on　account　of　warmth；　thunder　and　lightning　are　the
punishment　of　God；　or　else　they　make　fruitful　the　earth；　marmots　sleep　during　the　winter　because
they　can　find　nothing　to　eat；　snails　have　a　shell　in　order　that　they　may　be　secure　against　attacks；　the
bee　is　provided　with　a　sting。　According　to　Bacon　this　has　been　worked　out　in　innumerable
different　ways。　The　negative　and　external　side　of　utility　is　turned　round；　and　the　lack　of　this
adaptation　to　end　is　likewise　drawn　w