history of philosophy-第28节

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Fall；　in　which　the　serpent　did　not　delude　man；　for　God　said；　〃Behold；　Adam　has　become　as　one　of
us；　to　know　good　and　evil。〃　We　have　to　deal　with　this　unity　of　subjective　principle　and　of
substance；　it　constitutes　the　process　of　Mind　that　this　individual　one　or　independent　existence　of
subject　should　put　aside　its　immediate　character　and　bring　itself　forth　as　identical　with　the
substantial。　Such　an　aim　is　pronounced　to　be　the　highest　end　attainable　by　man。　We　see　from　this
that　religious　ideas　and　speculation　are　not　so　far　asunder　as　was　at　first　believed；　and　I　maintain
these　ideas　in　order　that　we　may　not　be　ashamed　of　them；　seeing　that　we　still　belong　to　them；　and
so　that　if　we　do　get　beyond　them；　we　may　not　be　ashamed　of　our　progenitors　of　the　early
Christian　times；　who　held　these　ideas　in　such　high　esteem。

The　first　principle　of　that　Philosophy　which　has　taken　its　place　in　Christendom　is　thus　found　in　the
existence　of　two　totalities。　This　is　a　reduplication　of　substance　which　now；　however；　is
characterized　by　the　fact　that　the　two　totalities　are　no　longer　external　to　one　another；　but　are
clearly　both　required　through　their　relation　to　one　another。　If　formerly　Stoicism　and　Epicureanism；
whose　negativity　was　Scepticism；　came　forth　as　independent；　and　if　finally　the　implicitly　existent
universality　of　both　was　established；　these　moments　are　now　known　as　separate　totalities；　and　yet
in　their　opposition　they　have　to　be　thought　of　as　one。　We　have　here　the　true　speculative　Idea；　the
Notion　in　its　determinations；　each　of　which　is　brought　into　a　totality　and　clearly　relates　to　the　other。
We　thus　have　really　two　Ideas；　the　subjective　Idea　as　knowledge；　and　then　the　substantial　and
concrete　Idea；　and　the　development　and　perfection　of　this　principle　and　its　coming　to　the
consciousness　of　Thought；　is　the　subject　treated　by　modern　Philosophy。　Thus　the　determinations
are　in　it　more　concrete　than　with　the　ancients。　This　opposition　in　which　the　two　sides　culminate；
grasped　in　its　widest　significance；　is　the　opposition　between　Thought　and　Being；　individuality　and
substance；　so　that　in　the　subject　himself　his　freedom　stands　once　more　within　the　bounds　of
necessity；　it　is　the　opposition　between　subject　and　object；　and　between　Nature　and　Mind；　in　so　far
as　this　last　as　finite　stands　in　opposition　to　Nature。

The　Greek　Philosophy　is　free　from　restraint　because　it　does　not　yet　have　regard　to　the　opposition
between　Being　and　Thought；　but　proceeds　from　the　unconscious　presupposition　that　Thought　is
also　Being。　Certainly　certain　stages　in　the　Greek　Philosophy　are　laid　hold　of　which　seem　to　stand
on　the　same　platform　as　the　Christian　philosophies。　Thus　when　we　see；　for　instance；　in　the
Philosophy　of　the　Sophists；　the　new　Academics；　and　the　Sceptics；　that　they　maintain　the　doctrine
that　the　truth　is　not　capable　of　being　known；　they　might　appear　to　accord　with　the　later　subjective
philosophies　in　asserting　that　all　thought…determinations　were　only　subjective　in　character；　and　that
hence　from　these　no　conclusions　could　be　arrived　at　as　regards　what　is　objective。　But　there　is
really　a　difference。　In　the　case　of　ancient　philosophies；　which　said　that　we　know　only　the
phenomenal；　everything　is　confined　to　that；　it　is　as　regards　practical　life　that　the　new　Academy　and
the　Sceptics　also　admitted　the　possibility　of　conducting　oneself　rightly；　morally　and　rationally；　when
one　adopts　the　phenomenal　as　one's　rule　and　guide　in　life。　But　though　it　is　the　phenomenal　that　lies
at　the　foundation　of　things；　it　is　not　asserted　that　there　is　likewise　a　knowledge　of　the　true　and
existent；　as　in　the　case　of　the　merely　subjective　idealists　of　a　more　modern　day。　Those　last　still
keep　in　the　background　a　potentiality；　a　beyond　which　cannot　be　known　through　thought　or
through　conception。　This　other　knowledge　is　an　immediate　knowledge…a　faith　in；　a　view　of；　and　a
yearning　after；　the　beyond　such　as　was　evinced　by　Jacobi。　The　ancients　have　no　such　yearning：　on
the　contrary；　they　have　perfect　satisfaction　and　rest　in　the　certitude　that　only　that　which　appears　is
for　Knowledge。

Thus　it　is　necessary　in　this　respect　to　keep　strictly　to　the　point　of　view　from　which　we　start；　else
through　the　similarity　of　the　results；　we　come　to　see　in　that　old　Philosophy　all　the　determinate
character　of　modern　subjectivity。　Since　in　the　simplicity　of　ancient　philosophy　the　phenomenal　was
itself　the　only　sphere；　doubts　as　to　objective　thought　were　not　present　to　it。

The　opposition　defined；　the　two　sides　of　which　are　in　modern　times　really　related　to　one　another
as　totalities；　also　has　the　form　of　an　opposition　between　reason　and　faith；　between　individual
perception　and　the　objective　truth　which　must　be　taken　without　reason　of　one's　own；　and　even
with　a　complete　disregard　for　such　reason。　This　is　faith　as　understood　by　the　church；　or　faith　in　the
modern　sense；　i。e。　a　rejection　of　reason　in　favour　of　an　inward　revelation；　called　a　direct　certainty
or　perception；　or　an　implicit　and　intuitive　feeling。　The　opposition　between　this　knowledge；　which
has　first　of　all　to　develop　itself；　and　that　knowledge　which　has　already　developed　itself　inwardly；
arouses　a　peculiar　interest。　In　both　cases　the　unity　of　thought　or　subjectivity　and　of　Truth　or
objectivity　is　manifested；　only　in　the　first　form　it　is　said　that　the　natural　man　knows　the　Truth　since
he　intuitively　believes　it；　while　in　the　second　form　the　unity　of　knowledge　and　Truth　is　shown；　but　in
such　a　way　that　the　subject　raises　itself　above　the　immediate　form　of　sensuous　consciousness　and
reaches　the　Truth　first　of　all　through　Thought。

The　final　end　is　to　think　the　Absolute　as　Mind；　as　the　Universal；　that　which；　when　the　infinite
bounty　of　the　Notion　in　its　reality　freely　emits　its　determinations　from　itself；　wholly　impresses　itself
upon　and　imparts　itself　to　them；　so　that　they　may　be　indifferently　outside　of　or　in　conflict　with　one
another；　but　so　that　these　totalities　are　one　only；　not　alone　implicitly；　（which　would　simply　be　our
reflection）　but　explicitly　identical；　the　determinations　of　their　difference　being　thus　explicitly　merely
ideal。　Hence　if　the　starting…point　of　the　history　of　Philosophy　can　be　expressed　by　saying　that　God
is　comprehended　as　the　immediate　and　not　yet　developed　universality；　and　that　its　end…the
grasping　of　the　Absolute　as　Mind　through　the　two　and　a　half　thousand　years'　work　of　the　thus　far
inert　world…spirit…is　the　end　of　our　time；　it　makes　it　easy　for　us　from　one　determination　to　go　on
through　the　manifestation　of　its　needs；　to　others。　Yet　in　the　course　of　history　this　is　difficult。

We　thus　have　altogether　two　philosophies…the　Greek　and　the　Teutonic。　As　regards　the　latter　we
must　distinguish　the　time　when　Philosophy　made　its　formal　appearance　as　Philosophy　and　the
period　of　formation　and　of　preparation　for　modern　times。　We　may　first　begin　Teutonic　philosophy
where　it　appears　in　proper　form　as　Philosophy。　Between　the　first　period　and　those　more　recent；
comes；　as　an　intermediate　period；　that　fermentation　of　a　new　Philosophy　which　on　the　one　side
keeps　within　the　substantial　and　real　existence　and　does　not　arrive　at　form；　while　on　the　other　side；
it　perfects　Thought；　as　the　bare　form　of　a　pre…supposed　truth；　until　it　again　knows　itself　as　the　free
ground　and　source　of　Truth。　Hence　the　history　of　Philosophy　falls　into　three　periods…that　of　the
Greek　Philosophy；　the　Philosophy　of　the　Middle　Ages　and　the　modern　Philosophy。　Of　these　the
first　is　speaking　generally；　regulated　by　Thought；　the　second　falls　into　the　opposition　between
existence　and　formal　reflection；　but　the　third　has　the　Notion　as　its　ground。　This　must　not　be　taken
to　mean　that　the　first　contains　Thought　alone；　it　also　has　conceptions　and　ideas；　just　as　the　latter
begins　from　abstract　thoughts　which　yet　constitute　a　duality。

First　Period。　—　This　commences　at　the　time　of　Thales；　about　600　B。C。；　and　goes　on　to　the
coming　to　maturity　of　the　Neo…platonic　philosophy　with　Plotinus　in　the　third　century；　from　thence
to　its　further　progress　and　development　with　Proclus　in　the　fifth　century　until　the　time　when　all
philosophy　was　extinguished。　The　Neo…platonic　philosophy　then　made　its　entrance　into　Christianity
later　on；　and　many　philosophies　within　Christianity　have　this　philosophy　as　their　only　groundwork。
This　is　a　space　of　time　extending　to　about　1000　years；　the　end　of　which　coincides　with　the
migration　of　the　nations　and　the　decline　of　the　Roman　Empire。

Second　Period。　—　The　second　period　is　that　of　the　Middle　Ages。　The　Scholastics　are　included
in　it；　and　Arabians　and　Jews　are　also　historically　to　be　noticed；　but　this　philosophy　mainly　falls
within　the　Christian　Church。　This　period　is　of　something　over　1000　years'　duration。

Third　Period。　—　Philosophy　of　modern　times　made　its　first　independent　appearance　after　the
Thirty　Years'　War；　with　Bacon；　Jacob　B？hm　and　Descartes；　it　begins　with　the　distinction
contained　in：　cogito　ergo　sum。　This　period　is　one　of　a　couple　of　centuries　and　the　philosophy　is
consequently　still　somewhat　modern。

2。　Sources　of　the　History　of　Philosophy。

We　have　to　seek　for　sources　of　another　kind　in　this　than　in　political　history。　There　historians　are